Subject: Lava Lamp Plans Here.
Date: 13 Jan 1995 08:08:15 GMT

I’ve had SEVERAL requests for the plans, so here they are.

Sorry, I guess I lost the name of the guy who gave ’em to me.
(I recieved two versions, and I liked this one best).

WARNING!! This electronic document deals with and involves subject matter
and the use of materials and substances that may be hazardous to health
and life. Do not attempt to implement or use the information contained
herein unless you are experienced and skilled with respect to such subject
matter, materials and substances. The author makes no representations as
for the completeness or the accuracy of the information contained herein
and disclaim any liability for damages or injuries, whether caused by or
arising from the lack of completeness, inaccuracies of the information,
misinterpretation of the directions, misapplication of the information or
otherwise.

Please note: The information contained in this electronic document can
be found in the 1992 Edition of Popular Electronics Electronics Hobbyists
handbook, published annually by Gernsback Publications Inc, USA.

Inside a lava lamp are two immiscible fluids. If it is assumed that fluid 1
is water, then fluid 2 must be:

.1) insoluble in water;
.2) heavier than water;
.3) non-flammable (for safety);
.4) non-reactive with water or air;
.5) more viscous than water;
.6) reasonably priced.

Furthermore, fluid 2 must not be:

.1) very poisonous (for safety);
.2) chlorinated;
.3) emulsifiable in water (for rapid separation).

In addition, fluid 2 must have a greater coefficient of expansion than
water. Check a Perry’s handbook of Chemical Engineering, and the above
list eliminates quite a few possibilities.

Here is a list of possible chemicals to use:

.1) benzyl alcohol (sp.g. 1.043, bp 204.7 deg. C, sl. soluble);
.2) cinnamyl alcohol (sp. g. 1.04, bp 257.5 deg. C, sl. soluble);
.3) diethyl phthalate (sp. g. 1.121, bp 298 deg. C, insoluble);
.4) ethyl salicylate (sp. g. 113, bp 233 deg. C, insoluble).

If desired, use a suitable red oil-soluble dye to color fluid 2. A
permanent felt-tip pen is a possible source. Break open the pen and put
the felt in a beaker with fluid 2.

It is recommended to use benzyl alcohol as fluid 2. (Caution!! Do not
come into contact with benzyl alcohol either by ingestion, skin, or
inhalation.) In addition to water, the following items will be necessary:

.1) sodium chloride (table salt);
.2) a clear glass bottle, about 10 inches (25.4 cm) high;
.3) a 40 watt light bulb and ceramic light fixture;
.4) a 1 pint (473 ml) tin can or larger;
.5) plywood;
.6) 1/4 inch (0.635 cm) thick foam-rubber;
.7) AC plug with 16 gauge lamp wire;
.8) hardware;
.9) light dimmer (optional);
.10) small fan (optional).

The performance of the lava lamp will depend on the quality of the water
used. A few experiments must be conducted to determine how much sodium
chloride is necessary to increase the water’s specific gravity. Try a 5%
salt concentration first (50 g of salt to 1 liter of water). Pour the
red-dyed benzyl alcohol mixture in a Pyrex beaker. Add an equal or
greater amount of water and heat slowly on a hot plate. If the benzyl
alcohol floats to the top and stays there, decrease the salt
concentration. If it stays at the bottom, add more salt.

Construct the lamp by fastening the ceramic lamp fixture to a 5 inch (12.7
cm) diameter piece of plywood. Attach the lamp wire to the fixture.
Screw in the 40 watt bulb. Cut one end off the tin can, remove its
contents, and clean thoroughly. Drill a hole in the tin can for the wire
to go through. Invert the can over the bulb (open end down) and affix to
the plywood with epoxy. Cut a round gasket from the foam-rubber and fit
it into the top lip of the can.

Fill the bottle partially with brine, add about 150 ml of benzyl alcohol,
then fill up the bottle with brine. Leave about 1 inch (2.54 cm) of
airspace on top for expansion. Bubble size will be influenced by amount
of air space. Tightly cap the bottle and place on gasket.

The light dimmer is used to control the amount of heat in the bottle. It
is helpful if the bottle is too short and the 40 watt bulb makes the
benzyl alcohol accumulate at the top.

The fan can also be used to cool the top of the bottle and help the benzyl
alcohol to sink to the bottom.

If desired, add a trace of an antioxidant such as BHA or BHT to the brine
to add color and contrast.

Enjoy and good luck.

Latin Textbook (Based on Wheelock’s Latin)
STUDY GUIDE TO WHEELOCK LATIN

by
Dale A Grote
UNC Charlotte

[This copy FTP’d from milton.u.washington.edu, 19-Jan-93]

From FFL00DAG@UNCCVM.UNCC.EDU Tue Jan 19 18:15:19 1993
Date: Tue, 19 Jan 93 21:08:32 EST
From: FFL00DAG@UNCCVM.UNCC.EDU
Subject: Re: Latin Textbook
To: Thomas Dell

Thomas,

I call the guides “Study Guide to Wheelock,” and have made them
available for free use to anyone who’d like use them. I think
the answer to your question, therefore, is “Yes.” I sent them
up so they could get some good beta-testing. So far as I’m
conncerned they can be copied and sent anywhere.

Dale A. Grote
FFL00DAG@UNCCVM.BITNET
Department of Foreign Languages
UNC Charlotte
Charlotte, NC 28223
704-547-4242

—

12/30/92

PREFACE TO MY COLLEAGUES

Wheelock’s Latin is now, and probably will be for sometime in the future, the
most widely used introductory Latin book used in American colleges and
universities. And with good reason. His exclusive emphasis on the details
of Latin grammar squares with the general expectation that students
acquire a rudimentary, independent reading ability in real Latin after only
two semesters of study. Surely Wheelock has its drawbacks and limitations,
but it is still the best text around.

A growing difficulty with the book has become apparent in recent
years, a problem that is entirely external to the text itself: students are
less and less able to understand his explanations of Latin grammar because
their grasp of English grammar is becoming more tenuous. This
obsolescence hardly comes as a surprise, since the main outlines of
Wheelock’s grammar were set down in the forties and fifties, when it was
safe to assume that college students were well versed in at least the
basics of English grammar. We may lament this change, write heated letters
to school boards and state legislatures, but all this is of little help when
confronted as we are with classrooms filled with beginning Latin students
who have never learned the difference between a participle and a pronoun,
or who have never heard the word “case” in their lives.

As the years went by, I found that I was required to dedicate
unacceptable amounts of class time to discussions of elementary
grammatical concepts and to redrafting Wheelock’s explanations into forms
my students could understand, leaving less time for actually confronting
Latin in the classroom. The results were predictable: it became nearly
impossible to complete the forty chapters of grammatical material in two
semesters. The third semester had to be called into the service of the
basic grammar of the language, thus reducing the reading we could do and
delaying the feeling of mastery and independence that drives students on
to read more.

Slowly, I began to compile a rather extensive body of notes and
exercises designed to teach the basic grammatical concepts to students of
Latin, as they needed them, while learning Latin from Wheelock, and to slow
down and recast Wheelock’s treatment of the grammar into language which
they could understand on their own. My intention for these notes was to
get the repetitive transfer of basic information out of the classroom, so
that we could spend more class time reviewing, translating, and drilling.
These notes, therefore, represent nothing more than what I found myself
repeating year after year in front of a class. By setting them into a
written text, however, and removing it from the daily classroom agenda,
there is no doubt that I have greatly increased the productivity of class
time. Whereas I previously struggled to finish twenty chapters in a
semester, my first semester class now easily finishes twenty-seven
chapters in the first semester, with time left over for some connected
readings. In the second semester, we have time to do considerable amounts
of extended reading after the forty chapters of grammar have been
covered.

There is really nothing miraculous about this increased productivity.
In fact, it was to be expected. Previously, students, who could make
neither heads nor tails of Wheelock, relied on my in-class presentations to
explain Latin grammar to them. After the grammar was explained, they would
review their classroom notes, and begin the chapter exercises, without
ever having read Wheelock, which had been replaced by my lectures. In
essence, then, I was doing their homework for them, but I was doing it in
class, not outside of class. By removing basic grammar from the class by
putting it into a workbook, I only transferred the time spent on learning
Latin grammar outside the class, and freed up time in class for drilling and
taking specific questions.

An unexpected, and admittedly self-interested, advantage I reaped
from these printed notes was that students who tend to fall behind, or to
miss class (and fall behind), had a body of notes which they could use on
their own to catch up, and — perhaps more importantly — to which I could
refer them when they came knocking at my door to find out “if they’d missed
anything important in class.” Previously this presented a real moral bind.
Either I spent hours reteaching the class (or classes) for them, in the
(usually vain) hope that they would reform once they had been set up on a
sure foundation, or I sent them away uninformed, knowing that things would
only get worse for them because they couldn’t possibly draw the
information they needed from Wheelock by themselves. Now, I refer them to
my notes, express my willingness to answer their specific questions after
they’ve worked through them, and send them on their way, hoping for the
best.

Here’s how I’ve incorporated these notes into my syllabus and
classroom routine. In the first place, going through my notes for each
chapter is entirely optional. I make no assignments from them, nor do we
use class time to go over any of the exercises they contain. Instead, I
merely assign the Practice and Review sentences of, say, Chapter 5, for the
next class period. How the students learn the material in Chapter 5 is
entirely their affair, though I do recommend they read my notes. If,
however, a student can understand Wheelock perfectly, then s/he is under
no obligation to read my presentation of the chapter. Most students do
read my notes instead of Wheelock. After reading my notes, I recommend
that they read Wheelock’s chapter, which provides a compressed “review” of
what I leisurely set out in my chapter notes. For an added review and
translation exercises, I also recommend that students work through
Wheelock’s Self-Help Tutorials before turning to the specified assignment.
After so much preparation, students regularly find the sentences quite
straight-forward. In class, then, after a verbal review of the important
concepts in the chapter, we work quickly through the sentences, then, in the
time remaining, we sight read either from the Sententiae Antiquae, or from
the book 38 Latin Stories designed to go along with Wheelock. My class
covers three chapters per week — one chapter per day, since we meet MWF
for an hour and half. Classes meeting five times per week, of course, would
divide the material differently.

I would like to stress again that I don’t claim to have created
anything new, revolutionary, or destined to reshape the way Latin is
taught for the next 25 years. Perhaps I do have one claim to originality,
insofar as my book combines a grammar text and workbook, but I hardly think
that’s worthy of much note. I merely believe that I have put together a
study guide which will help teach Latin from Wheelock more efficiently by
making more classroom time available for direct contact with the language
itself. The text is not meant to intrude directly on classroom work. It is
for students use at night, by themselves, to prepare for classes and exams.
I myself designate the book as an optional purchase and make it available
at a nearby copy store, and at first a substantial fraction of my class
doesn’t buy it. After three weeks, however, nearly all of them have a copy.
My students, at least, find the book very helpful, and frequently make
remarks about it on their course evaluations. For what it’s worth, here
are their remarks from last semester.

“The book the instructor made that goes along with Wheelock’s book
provided a much better understanding of Latin.”

“His notebook that went along with the Wheelock book was also
immensely helpful. The explanations were thorough and easy to
understand.”

“The workbook that he created to go along with the text helped a lot
in the understanding of the work.”

“Dr. Grote’s handbook for the class is a great teaching tool and
helped students be prepared for class.”

“Grote’s handbook — especially helpful.”

“He supplies a handbook written by him that helps a great deal in
learning Latin.”

“Dr. Grote’s book was very helpful! His explanations are elaborate
and very clear. I’d vote for publication!!” [Emphases in the original]

I’m providing you draft of my book for the usual reasons. I would
appreciate your making the text available to your students — as I do — at
a copy shop and calling their attention to it. Would you please take note of
their reactions, positive and negative, and send them along to me during or
at the end of the semester. I would greatly value, of course, any remarks
you would care to make about my presentations. Since I’m preparing the copy
myself, any corrigenda you spot would save me a lot of embarrassment. If
you have any questions I’ve left unanswered, please don’t hesitate to
contact me.

Dale A. Grote
UNC Charlotte
Department of Foreign Languages
Charlotte, NC 28223
(704) 547-4242
FFL00DAG@UNCCVM.BITNET

12/30/92

CHAPTER 1

“First and Second Conjugation Verbs: Indicative,
Imperative, and Infinitive”

VERBS: THE BASICS OF CONJUGATION

Let’s start simply: a verb is a word which indicates action or state of
being. Everyone ought to know that. Look at some of the different forms of
a simple verb in English, the verb “to see”:

GROUP I GROUP II GROUP III

I see. I saw. I am seen.
I do see. I was seen.
I am seeing. I will be seen.
I will see. I should have been seen.
I should be seeing.
I would see.
See.
I want to see.

And so on; there are several left out. Look at the first group for now. You
can detect something interesting going on here. You have a basic form of
the verb — “see” — and it’s undergoing changes. One kind of change is that
different words are put before it, another is the “-ing” suffix attached to
the end, and another is the addition of a suffix “-s” when you want to say
“he/she/it sees”.

You can see that the verb “to see” has a basic form, which is being
modified slightly to show that the verb is being used in a different way.
This modification of a verb to show different aspects or conditions of the
action is called “conjugation” (kahn juh GAY chion), and a verb is said to
“conjugate” (KAHN juh gate) when it’s modified to exhibit these different
conditions. A verb, therefore, has a basic form or set of forms, which then
conjugate in order to change the way its meaning is to be understood in a
particular context. These basic forms contain the core meaning of the
verb, but the way the action is being applied and the circumstances under
which the action is changing.

Now look at the second group — it’s really a group of one. Here you
have an entirely different form: “saw”. How do you know that it’s a part of
the verb “to see?” From your experience with English, of course. This form
of the verb is an entirely different stem, yet it’s still just a variation of
the basic verb “to see”. So a verb can change its form entirely and still be
a part of the same family of meaning. So also with the third group. “Seen”
is another stem of the basic verb “to see”, and your native English sense
tells you it’s merely a variation of a verb you already know: “to see”.
Again, we can put all kinds of words in front to conjugate it, but with this
stem, no changes actually affect the stem itself. There’s no such form as
“seening”, for example.

Now let’s try an experiment. Suppose you’re not an English speaker
and you come across the word “saw” while you’re reading something. You
don’t know what it is, so you try to look it up in the dictionary just as it
is: “saw”. Unless you have a very unusual dictionary you won’t find it. Why
not? Because “saw” is a variation of a more basic form. In the same way,
would you expect to find an entry in a dictionary for the word “stones?” Of
course not, because “stones” is just the plural form of “stone”, a form you
can easily deduce from the basic form “stone”, if you know the rules of
English grammar. So before you can use a dictionary, you already have to
know something about the language. And that’s entirely understandable.
How big would a dictionary have to be to list all the possible varieties of
every word in the language? Consequently, before you look up a word in a
dictionary, you must first reduce it to a form under which the dictionary
will list it, and that often takes patience and some mental effort.

Let’s go back to the verb “to see”. It has three different stems in its
conjugation — “see, saw, seen” — and to use the verb intelligently you
must know them all and you must know the rules governing their use. We call
these forms, the “principal parts” of the verb. You’ll notice in English the
way these principal parts are conjugated is by piling up all kinds of words
in front of them. These words change the aspect of the action. To sum up,
to use any verb fully, you must know two things: (1) all the principal parts
of the verb, and (2) the rules governing the conjugation of English verbs.
This is also true of Latin verbs.

LATIN VERBS: THE BASICS

As you may have guessed, Latin verbs have different rules governing the
way they conjugate. For the most part — almost exclusively — Latin
verbs conjugate by attaching endings to the stems themselves, without all
the separate helping words put in front of the stem as in English to tell
you how to understand the action. So for a Latin verb, you must learn two
things: (1) the stems, and (2) how the stems are modified at their ends to
show different conditions under which the action is occurring. Let’s look
at English again. Here is the conjugation of the verb “to see” in the
present tense.

SINGULAR PLURAL

I see we see
you see you see
he, she, it, sees they see

With the exception of the form “sees”, the differences among these forms is
made by the preceding word. In this instance, the change is in the person
who is performing the action. Now look at the Latin translation for the
verb English verb “to see” with these modifications.

LATIN ENGLISH

1st video I see
2nd vides you see
3rd videt he/she/it sees

1st videmus we see
2nd videtis you see
3rd vident they see

As I told you before, Latin conjugates its verbs by attaching endings to
the root of the verb itself, and here you can see it happening. The common
feature of the verb “to see” in Latin is the stem “vide-” and to show
changes in person and number, Latin adds a suffix. These suffixes are
called the “personal endings”, because they indicate the person and the
number of the conjugated form of the verb. Let’s set these personal
endings out:

1st person -o = I
2nd person -s = you (singular)
3rd person -t = he, she, it

1st person -mus = we
2nd person -tis = you (plural)
3rd person -nt = they

Now try your hand at conjugating some other Latin verbs. The verb
meaning “to warn, advise” in Latin has the stem “mone-“; the verb meaning
“to be strong” in Latin has the stem “vale-“; and the verb meaning “to owe,
ought” in Latin has the stem “debe-“. Translate the following into Latin.

we owe, ought debemus

they see ____________________

she advises ____________________

you (pl.) are strong ____________________

they warn ____________________
you (sg.) are strong ____________________

I owe, ought ____________________

we see ____________________

CONJUGATIONS OF LATIN VERBS

You now know the single most important characteristic of Latin nouns: they
conjugate by adding suffixes to a stem. You also now know the most common
kind of suffix: the personal endings. Next you need to know something more
about the stems. There are four groups of Latin verbs, called
“conjugations”, determined by the final vowel attached to the end of the
stem. The verbs you’ve been working with have stems which end in “-e”.
Verbs whose stems end in “-e” are called “2nd conjugation” verbs. If,
however, the stem of the verb ends in “-a” then it’s called a “1st
conjugation” verb. Verbs whose stem ends in short “-e” are called “3rd
conjugation”. And verbs whose stem ends in “-i” are called “4th
conjugation”. Like this:

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

lauda- vale- duc- veni-
ama- vide- ag- senti-
cogita- mone- carp- audi-

The first several chapters of Wheelock are concerned only with the first
and second conjugations, so for now we’ll postpone any further discussion
of the third and fourth conjugation. But for now, you need to recognize
that the principal difference between the four conjugations of Latin verbs
is in the vowel that comes between the stem and the personal endings. All
four conjugations follow the same rules for conjugating: stem (which
includes the characteristic stem vowel) + personal endings.

You have already worked with second conjugation verbs. Now let’s
have a look at an example of a first conjugation verb. We’ll use the verb
“to love” as the example, which has the stem “ama-“. So “ama-” means “love”
but to use it in a sentence, we have to add the personal endings. The
stem of the verb is “ama-“, so to conjugate it, we just add the personal
endings to it, following the same rules that apply to second conjugation
verbs. Fill in the stem and personal endings in the blanks on the following
chart but hold off filling in the conjugated forms for now.

STEM + PERSONAL ENDING = CONJUGATED FORM

1st ________ + __________ = _______________

2nd ________ + __________ = _______________

3rd ________ + __________ = _______________

1st ________ + __________ = _______________

2nd ________ + __________ = _______________

3rd ________ + __________ = _______________

Now for the conjugated forms. If you follow the rules of conjugation that
apply for second conjugation verbs, you should write the form “amao” for
the first person singular. But listen to how easily the two vowels “a” and
“o” can be simplified into a single “o” sound. Say “ao” several times quickly
and you’ll see that the two sounds are made in the same place in the mouth.
Over time, Latin simplified the sound “ao” to just “o”. The final written
form is “amo”, not “amao”. So write “amo” for “I love”. Aside from this small
irregularity, however, the personal endings are attached directly to the
stem without any alteration or loss of the stem vowel. Fill in the rest of
the conjugated forms. (If you’re unsure of yourself, check your work
against the paradigm on page 3 of Wheelock.)

Now conjugate another paradigm of a second conjugation verbs: “mone-”

STEM + PERSONAL ENDING = CONJUGATED FORM

1st ________ + __________ = _______________

2nd ________ + __________ = _______________

3rd ________ + __________ = _______________

1st ________ + __________ = _______________

2nd ________ + __________ = _______________

3rd ________ + __________ = _______________

THE ENGLISH PRESENT TENSES

Look at the following conjugated forms of the English verb “to see”.

I see.
I am seeing.
I do see.

Each of these forms refers to present time — and are therefore present
tenses — but each is different. We’re so accustomed to these different
present tenses in English that we can hardly explain what the different
meanings are, even though we’re instantly aware that there is a distinction
being made. Try to explain the differences among “I see”, “I am seeing” and “I
do see”. It’s difficult, but these different present tenses are essential to
the way we speak. In reality English is one of the few languages which has
these three present tenses, and it’s very hard to foreign students of
English to learn how and when to use them. “I see” is called the Simple
Present tense; “I am seeing” is called the Present Progressive; and “I do
see” is called the Present Emphatic. Now try to come up with the
differences. The point of this is that Latin has only one present tense. So,
when we see “laudas”, for example, it can be translated into English as “you
praise”, “you do praise”, or “you are praising”. We have to let our native
sense of the simple present, the present progressive, and the present
emphatic tell us which to use.

THE IMPERATIVE

Another conjugated form of Latin verbs is the “imperative” mood, or the
direct command. Its name is its definition. It’s how you turn a verb into a
direct command: “Look here”, “Watch out”, “Stop that”, etc. To form the
imperative mood of any Latin verb, follow these rules:

Second Person Singular stem
Second Person Plural stem + te

Form the imperative mood of the following Latin verbs:

lauda-

singular ____________________

plural ____________________

mone-

singular ____________________

plural ____________________

THE INFINITIVE

Verb forms which specify no person — 1st, 2nd, or 3rd — we call “infinite”
or “infinitive”, which means, literally, “without boundary”. That is to say,
the form is not bounded by or limited to a certain person. Theoretically,
there are many verb forms which are “infinite”, but in common usage the
word “infinitive” is generally limited to forms which are translated into
English as “to x” (where “x” is the meaning of the verb). To form the
infinitive, a “-re” suffix is added to the stem.

lauda + re = laudare (to praise)
mone + re = monere (to warn)

DICTIONARY CONVENTIONS FOR VERBS

As you can see, each verb has at least six different forms (there are many,
many more which you’ll learn later), and, for obvious reasons, it would be
impossible for a dictionary to list all six of these possibilities under
separate entries. That is, you can’t look up “laudant” just as it’s here,
anymore than you could look up “they are saying” under “they” in an English
dictionary. You have to strip the conjugated form of the verb down to the
form under which the dictionary will give it to you. For the English “they
are saying”, obviously, you would look up “say”, because you know the
conventions an English dictionary uses for listing an English verb. What
are the conventions for a Latin dictionary? If you see a form like
“laudant” in a text you’re reading and want to look it up, how do you do it?
What is its “dictionary” form?

The dictionary form for a Latin verb is not the stem, but the first
person singular. This means that when you want to look up “laudant” you
have to look it up under the conjugated form “laudo”, not under its raw stem
“lauda-“. What you have to do to look up a Latin verb, therefore, is to
imagine what the verb looks like in the first person singular and look it up
under that. There is no reason it has to be like this; Latin dictionaries
could have adopted any other of a number of different conventions for
listing verbs, but this just happens to be the way it is. A consequence of
this is that the first personal singular of a verb is considered to be the
basic form of the verb. So, I’ll say, for example, “The Latin verb for “to
see” is “video”, which is really saying “The Latin verb for “to see” is ‘I
see.'” Again, this is just conventional, but it’s how it’s done. To repeat, in
order to look a verb up in the dictionary, you first have to reduce it to its
first person singular form. In the case of the conjugated form “laudant”
you would follow this process.

(1) The “-nt” suffix is the third person plural personal ending, so
you take it off; that leaves you with “lauda-“.
(2) You remember that verbs conjugate by adding personal endings
to the stem, so “lauda-” is the stem. But you can’t look it up
under the stem alone, because a dictionary lists verbs under
the first person singular. You must reconstruct the first
person singular to look this verb up.
(3) Next ask yourself what the conjugation of a verb like “lauda-”
is going to be, first or second conjugation? Since the final
vowel of the stem is “-a-“, the verb you’re looking at is a first
conjugation verb. And what does the first person singular or a
first conjugation verb look like? It’s “lauda + o = laudo” (since
the “a” and the “o” contract to just “o”). So we say that
“laudant” is from “laudo”, just as we might say in English “seen”
is from “to see”.
(4) Now you’ve simplified the verb to something you can look it up
under — “laudo” — and the translation is “to praise”.
(5) The second entry for a verb in the Latin dictionary is its
infinitive form. After “laudo”, therefore, you see “laudare”.
Since you know that an infinitive is the stem plus the ending
“-re”, you can easily see the true stem of the verb simply by
dropping off the final “-re” infinitive ending. This confirms the
fact that the verb you’re looking up is a first conjugation
verb.
(6) Now translate “laudant”. With the personal ending brought back
in the translation is “they praise” (or “they are praising”, or
“they do praise”).

I know this may seem tedious at first, but concentrate on
internalizing each one of these steps. You’ll benefit immensely when the
grammar becomes more complicated. The moral of all this is that you should
never go browsing around in the dictionary hoping to find something that
might match the word you’re looking up. You must think carefully about what
you’re looking for before you turn the first page of the dictionary. (You’ll
hear me say this repeatedly.)

VOCABULARY PUZZLES

debeo, debere This verb has an apparently odd combinations of
meanings — “to owe; should, must, ought” — until we
remember that our English verb “ought” is really an
archaic past tense of the verb “to owe”. As with the
English verb “ought”, the Latin verb “debeo” is often
followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning: “I ought
to see” = “Debeo videre”. An infinitive which completes
the meaning of another verb is called a “complementary
infinitive”.
servo, servare Despite its appearance, this verb doesn’t mean “to serve”.
Be careful with this one.

12/31/92

CHAPTER 2

“Cases; First Declension; Agreement of Adjectives”

CASES AND INFLECTION

Consider the following sentence: “The girl saw the dog”. How can
you tell that this sentence does not mean that the dog is seeing
the girl? The answer is obvious to an English speaker. “Girl”
comes before the verb, and “dog” comes after it, and this
arrangement tells us that the “girl” is performing the action of
verb, and the “dog” is receiving the action. We say that the one
who is performing the action of the verb is the “subject” of the
verb. So “girl” is the “subject” of “saw”. The dog, however, is
the “object” of the verb, since it’s the object of the action.
And in English, we generally show these functions — subject and
object — by position relative to the verb. The subject of the
verb tends to come before the verb, the object tends to come
after it.

But position isn’t the only way we show which word is the
subject and object of a verb. Now consider this sentence: “Him I
like, them I despise”. Obviously this sentence has an usual
arrangement for rhetorical purposes, but how can you tell who is
doing what to whom? Even though English grammar shows
grammatical relationship between words in a sentence mainly by
position, in many instances a change in the word itself provides
you additional help. The word “him”, although it comes first in
the sentence, is not the subject because its form — “him”
instead of “he” — is not the one used to indicate that it’s the
subject of the verb. We use the form “he” to show that.
Furthermore, the word “I” is the form we use when the first
person is subject of the verb. Hence, the words “he” and “I”
change their forms as their grammatical function in the sentence
changes. The change in form of a word to show grammatical
functions is called “inflection”.

The English personal pronouns change quite a lot to show you how
they’re being used in the sentence. Watch.

FORM FUNCTION

I subject
my possessor (it owns
something
me object (something is
being done to it)
First Person Pronoun
we subject
our possessor
us object

you subject
your possessor
you object
Second Person Pronoun
you subject
your possessor
you object

he,she,it subject
his,her,its possessor
him,her,it object
Third Person Pronoun
they subject
their possessor
them object

This inflection (change of form to show grammatical
function) in the pronouns is very useful for helping us to
understand each other — although, as you can see, the second
person pronoun “you, etc” doesn’t inflect nearly so much as the
first and third. The plural forms are even identical to the
singular forms. We can still get by.

In English, inflection is rather limited, and we rely on
position mainly to tell us what the words in the sentence are
doing to each other. The only grammatical functions that involve
a change in form for all nouns is the possessive case and the
plural forms, where we attach an “-s” to the end of the word.
(In written English we even include an apostrophe “‘” mark to
help us see the difference between a pluralized noun and a noun
that’s in the possessive case.) For example

SINGULAR PLURAL

apple subject apples subject
apple’s possessor apples’ possessor
apple object apples object

Watch how we combine position with inflection in English to make
sense to one another. As you can see, position is the principal
guide.

“These apples’ [plural, possessor] cores are hard, but
apples [plural, subject] are usually soft. When you
[singular, subject] buy apples [plural, object], you
[singular, subject] should first pick up each apple
[object, singular] and bounce it [singular, object] off
the floor several times. Then check its [singular,
possessor] skin. If it [singular, subject] is bruised,
discretely put it [singular, object] back with the
other apples [plural, object], making certain that no
one [singular, subject] is watching you [singular,
object]”.

Unlike English, languages which rely primarily on inflection of
words to show grammatical relationship are called “inflected”
languages. English, though it has some inflection, is not an
inflected language. Latin, however, is an inflected language,
because it relies almost entirely on changes in the words
themselves to indicate their grammatical function in a sentence.

The different grammatical functions a word can have in a
sentence is called “case”. In English there are three
recognizable different cases, that is grammatical functions, a
word can have: the subjective case, the possessive case, and the
objective case. So we say there are three cases in English. In
Latin there are six difference cases. Here are the Latin cases.
(Don’t try to memorize them all at once here. Just read through
the list; there will be plenty of time to firm up your
familiarity of them.)

LATIN APPROXIMATE ENGLISH EQUIVALENT

Nominative (Subjective)
Genitive (Possessive Case)
Dative (Object of words like “to” or “for”)
Accusative (Objective Case)
Ablative (Adverbial Usages: “by”, “with”)
Vocative (Direct Address)

We’ll look at the way these cases are used in Latin in the next
part of these notes, although some of them won’t be difficult at
all: the nominative, genitive, and accusative cases are almost
the same as their English counterparts. The ablative, dative and
vocative will need some explanation. Before then, however, let’s
look at how a Latin noun inflects to show all these different
cases.

Let’s look at some English pronouns which inflect to show
the three different cases. Do you remember “they, their, them?”
The pronoun is inflecting through its different cases, but we can
definitely spot a pattern of similarity among the three forms.
There is a definite root of the word. The root (that is, the
part of the word that contains the meaning of the word) is “the-”
to which then the endings “-y”, “-ir” and “-m”. So we could say
that the word is inflecting by adding certain case endings to a
stem. The stem contains the core of the meaning of the word, and
the endings merely inflect or alter its grammar.

This is precisely how Latin nouns show their different
cases: they add additional letters to the end of the basic form
of the word. This basic form that does not change throughout its
inflection is called the “stem”. There are, consequently, two
parts of a Latin word that you must note: the stem and the case
ending. The stem contains the meaning of the word and its gender
(masculine, feminine, or neuter). The case ending will tell you
(1) how the noun is being used in its sentence, and (2) whether
the noun is singular or plural. Let’s watch a the Latin noun
“puella” (girl) as it inflects through its different cases:

SINGULAR APPROXIMATE ENGLISH TRANSLATION

NOMINATIVE puella girl
GENITIVE puellae of the girl
DATIVE puellae to/for the girl
ACCUSATIVE puellam girl
ABLATIVE puella by/with the girl
VOCATIVE puella girl

PLURAL

NOMINATIVE puellae girls
GENITIVE puellarum of the girls
DATIVE puellis to/for the girls
ACCUSATIVE puellas girls
ABLATIVE puellis by/with the girls
VOCATIVE puellae girls

The stem of the Latin word is clearly visible. It’s
“puell-” to which different endings are being attached. The
endings are:

SINGULAR PLURAL

NOMINATIVE -a -ae
GENITIVE -ae -arum
DATIVE -ae -is
ACCUSATIVE -am -as
ABLATIVE -a -is
VOCATIVE -a -ae

There are many other nouns in Latin which follow this same
pattern of case endings when they inflect. This pattern of
endings is called the “first declension” (deh CLEN shion) and you
can see the strong presence of an “-a-“. There are four other
declensional patterns in Latin, but a noun will belong to only
one of them. Hence we can say that “puella” is a first
declension noun. The other declensions are called, not
surprisingly, the second, third, fourth and fifth declension, and
are distinguished form one another in part by the thematic, or
characteristic, vowel that appears in its endings.

REVIEW

This is a lot of information to absorb in one sitting. Stop now
for a while, then read through this review statement before
starting on the next section of this chapter.

A language whose nouns show their grammatical function in the
sentence by changes in the noun itself, and not by position, is
called an inflected language. The different grammatical
functions a language recognizes are called cases. In English,
there are three cases. They are the subjective, the possessive,
and the objective. In Latin there are six cases. They are the
nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative and vocative
cases. A Latin noun has two parts which you must note: it has a
stem, which contains the noun’s basic meaning and its gender; and
it also has a case ending which tells you the noun’s case and its
number. A pattern of endings which are added to the end of a
noun to show its grammatical function is called a declension.
Each noun in Latin belongs to one declension. The declensions
are called the first, second, third, fourth and fifth
declensions.

THE FIRST DECLENSION

Let’s have a look at another first declension noun: “pecuni-”
(money).

SINGULAR

STEM + CASE ENDING = INFLECTED FORM

N/V. pecuni + -a = _______________

GEN. pecuni + -ae = _______________

DAT. pecuni + -ae = _______________

ACC. pecuni + -am = _______________

ABL. pecuni + -a = _______________

PLURAL

STEM + CASE ENDING = INFLECTED FORM

N/V. pecuni + -ae = _______________

GEN. pecuni + -arum = _______________

DAT. pecuni + -is = _______________

ACC. pecuni + -as = _______________

ABL. pecuni + -is = _______________

Let’s try a few more paradigms. Decline the noun “patri-”
(fatherland) and vit-” (life).

SINGULAR
patri- vit-

N/V. _______________ _______________

GEN. _______________ _______________

DAT. _______________ _______________

ACC. _______________ _______________

ABL. _______________ _______________

PLURAL

N/V. _______________ _______________

GEN. _______________ _______________

DAT. _______________ _______________

ACC. _______________ _______________

ABL. _______________ _______________

GENDER

All Latin nouns possess what is called “gender”. That is, a noun
will be masculine, feminine, or neuter. Don’t confuse this kind of
grammatical gender with biological gender. There is nothing
biologically feminine about nouns which are grammatically feminine,
nothing biologically masculine about nouns which are grammatically
masculine, and nothing biologically neuter about nouns which are
grammatically neuter. It’s just that nouns have a feature which we
call gender by convention. And this is a feature which cannot
change in a noun. A noun may change its case or number, but a noun
will never change its gender. This is a fixed feature, and you
must be told what gender a noun is when you look it up in the
dictionary. This is important to remember, because although the
vast majority of first declensions nouns are feminine, not all of
them are. You must memorize the gender of each noun as you would
learn its meaning.

DICTIONARY CONVENTIONS FOR GENDER AND DECLENSION

The dictionary therefore must tell you many things about a noun
you’re looking up — and you must know how the dictionary tells you
what you need to know. Latin dictionaries follow the following
conventions for listing nouns.

(1) The first entry in the dictionary is the noun in the
nominative case.
(2) The second entry is the genitive singular ending. This
is essential, because many of the declensions have
identical nominative singular endings. There is no way
to be certain, therefore, to which declension a noun
belongs simply by looking at the nominative singular.
But in all declensions, the genitive singular endings are
different. The genitive singular ending of the first
declension is “-ae”, that of the second declension is
“-i”, that of the third is “-is”, that of the fourth is
“-us”, and that of the fifth is “-ei” If you know the
genitive singular of a noun you know what declension the
noun follows. Another reason you must have the genitive
singular form given to you is that the stem of the noun
is often not visible in the nominative singular.
Sometimes the stem changes slightly from the nominative
to the other forms. Again, you cannot predict what kind
of stem change will occur simply by looking at the
nominative. But you will be able to see it in the
genitive singular. (This kind of stem change never occurs
in the first declension, but it does in the second and
the third.)
(3) The last entry is the gender of the noun, which cannot be
deduced even if you know everything else about the noun.
You must be given it.

Put all this together, and typical dictionary entries for first
declension noun will look like this:

patria, -ae (f)
pecunia, -ae (f)
poeta, -ae (m)
agricola, -ae (m)

Now look up the following nouns in your dictionary and write out
the grammatical information you are given.

ENGLISH FULL ENTRY DECLENSION STEM

band _________________________ _____ __________

brother _________________________ _____ __________

care _________________________ _____ __________

city _________________________ _____ __________

day _________________________ _____ __________

dread _________________________ _____ __________

TRANSLATION OF THE CASES

What I’m going to give you now is just the bare outline of how
these cases can be translated into English. There will be plenty
of time for further refinement in the future — and we’ll have to
do some refinement — but for the time being, these guide lines
will get you well on your way.

NOMINATIVE CASE

A noun in the nominative case is often the subject of a verb. For
example, in the English sentence “The tree fell on my car”, the
“tree” is in the nominative case because it’s the subject of the
verb “fell”. If this were a Latin sentence, the word tree would be
in the nominative case form. The rule of thumb for now is that if
you see a noun in the nominative case, try to translate it as the
subject of the verb in its sentence.

GENITIVE CASE

This case shows that one noun belongs to another noun. The noun
which is the owner is put into the genitive case. Like this in
English: “The car’s door is open”. “Door” is the nominative case
because it’s the thing which is open — it’s the subject of the
verb “is” — and the door belongs to the car, so “car’s” is put
into the genitive case. So for now, every time you see the
genitive case, translate the noun with the English preposition “of”
or use the genitive marker “‘s”. For example, if “portae” is in
the genitive case, translate it either as “the door’s” or “of the
door”.

DATIVE CASE

The dative case shows that a noun is indirectly affected by the
action of the sentence. Take for example, in the English sentence
“George gave the ball to the girl”. George is the subject of “give”
and the thing George is giving is the “ball”. So the thing most
directly affected by George’s action is the ball. It’s the direct
recipient of the action. But George then gave the ball to the
girl, so the girl is also being affected, but only indirectly.
Therefore, the girl is the “indirect object” of the action of the
sentence. English can also indicate the indirect object simply by
position: by putting the indirect object before the direct object.
Like this: George gave the girl the ball. In Latin, the word for
“girl” would be in the dative case, and so would have the dative
case ending of the declension to which the word “girl” belongs. So
the form would be “puellae”. Again, a rough rule of thumb: when
you see the dative case, try to translate it with the prepositions
“to” or “for” and see which of the two makes the most sense.

ACCUSATIVE CASE

The noun which is directly affected by the action of a verb is put
into the accusative case. In English we call this case the “direct
object” which is a little more descriptive of its function. It’s
the direct object of some action. In the example above, the “ball”
is in the accusative case because it’s the direct object of
George’s action of giving. In Latin, therefore, the word for ball
would have the characteristic accusative case ending attached to
its stem. The accusative case is also used after some
prepositions, but we’ll look at that later.

ABLATIVE CASE

The ablative case is rather complicated. Let’s just say for now
that when you see a noun in the ablative case, translate it by
using the prepositions “with” or “by”. We’ll study the various
meanings of the ablative case separately in later chapters.

VOCATIVE CASE

If you want to call someone or something by name to get some
attention, then you use the vocative case. “Dog, get out of the
house!” “Dog” is in the vocative case. The form of the vocative
case — that is, the ending you attach to the stem to form the case
— is almost always identical to the nominative form of the word.
For that reason, the nominative and vocative forms are often listed
together in a declensional pattern, instead of being given separate
listings. The vocative case is very easily distinguished from the
nominative case, though, because a noun in the vocative is always
set off from the rest of the sentence with commas and is often
preceded by in the interjection “O” — the Latin equivalent of our
“hey”: “O puellae, date poetae rosas” (Hey girls, give roses to
the poet.)

So let’s put all this together into a chart you can use when you’re
translating a Latin sentence. The sooner you’ve memorized this
guidelines, the easier it’ll be for you to work through Latin
sentences:

THE CASES

Nominative the subject of a verb
Genitive use “of” or “-‘s” (“-s'”) for the plural
Dative use “to” or “for”, or put the noun before the
direct object
Accusative the direct object of a verb or object of a
preposition
Ablative use the prepositions “with” or “for”
Vocative use the English “hey” or “Oh”

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS

An adjective is a word which modifies or qualifies a noun. “A red
leaf:” “leaf” is the noun and “red” is telling you something more
about it. That’s pretty simple. To indicate which noun an
adjective is modify we use position in English: i.e., we put the
adjective right next to the noun.

“A red leaf with a brown stem fell off the tall tree onto the
flat ground”.

There is no question about which adjectives are modifying which
nouns. No one, except perhaps a deconstructionist, would think the
author is trying to say that the ground is red or that the stem is
flat. Position makes this clear. In Latin, however, where
position is not so important, adjectives have to be put together
with their nouns differently. Instead of using position, Latin
adjectives take on some of the characteristics of the nouns they’re
modifying: i.e., they undergo changes to match the noun they’re
modifying.

So what properties do nouns have in a Latin sentence. Well,
they have case — they have to have case to work in the sentence —
and they have number (singular or plural) and they have gender
(masculine, feminine, or neuter). Remember this about gender: a
noun can change its number and case, but it can only have one
gender; it cannot change its gender. So each noun has number,
gender, and case. An adjective has to be able to acquire the
number, gender, and case of the noun it’s modifying. So how does
it do that? It does it by declining. And in this respect it
resembles a noun: nouns decline to get different numbers and cases;
so do adjectives. But there is an important difference. Latin
nouns are either masculine, feminine or neuter, and they can never
change their gender. The noun “porta, -ae (f)” is forever
feminine. The noun “poeta, -ae (m)” is forever masculine, etc.
But for adjectives to be useful, they have to be able to become any
one of the three genders; i.e., adjectives have to be able to be
masculine, feminine or neuter to match the gender of the noun
they’re modifying. And how do they do that? They accomplish this
by using endings from different declensions (and you’ll learn these
other declension in the next couple of chapters). So here are two
critical differences between adjectives and nouns: (1) each
adjective can have any of the three genders, but each noun can have
only one gender; (2) each noun will belong only to one declension,
but adjectives can span declensions. You’ll see much more of this
later, but for now you need to know that adjectives use endings of
the first declension to become feminine, and, therefore, to modify
nouns which are feminine in gender. So try this. Decline the
expression “big rose”:

magna rosa

N/V. _______________ _______________

GEN. _______________ _______________

DAT. _______________ _______________

ACC. _______________ _______________

ABL. _______________ _______________

N/V. _______________ _______________

GEN. _______________ _______________

DAT. _______________ _______________

ACC. _______________ _______________

ABL. _______________ _______________

Now look at these endings for the adjective and the noun.
They look alike, don’t they. But this is dangerously deceptive.
Get this in your head: agreement means same number, gender, and
case, not look-alike endings, even though in this limited example
and in all the examples in this chapter they do look alike.
Consider this problem. The noun for poet is a masculine noun in
the first declension: “poeta, -ae (m)”. Now, for an adjective to
agree with it, it must have the same number, gender and case.
Right? But adjectives with first declension endings are masculine.
So, will the endings of an adjective modifying the noun “poeta” be
the same as those as “poeta”. I.e., will the pattern for “great
poet” look like this?

SINGULAR
magna poeta

N/V. magna poeta
GEN. magnae poetae
DAT. magnae poetae
ACC. magnam poetam
ABL. magna poeta
PLURAL

N/V. magnae poetae
GEN. magnarum poetarum
DAT. magnis poetis
ACC. magnas poetas
ABL. magnis poetis

The answer is “no”, because the forms “magna, magnae” etc. are
feminine in gender because adjectives use first declension endings
to become feminine in gender but the noun “poeta” is masculine.
Therefore the adjective will have to use endings from another
declension and the forms will not look alike. You’ll see all this
in the next two chapters. But remember: agreement means having the
same number, gender, and case, not having the same endings. Okay?

VOCABULARY PUZZLES

tua, mea The words “tua”, which means “your” and “mea”, which
means “my” are the first and second person singular
possessive adjectives, and they consequently must “agree”
in number, gender and case with whatever is being
possessed. “tu-” and “me-” are the stems of the word,
and the “-a” is the adjectival suffix. What causes
students concern is that they can’t quite bring
themselves to make the adjectival suffix of the singular
possessive adjectives plural. For example, they balk at
“meae rosae” (my roses), because they assume somehow that
the entire word “me-” must become plural. This isn’t
necessary. Think of it this way: the “me-” or “tu-” part
of these words refer you to the person doing the
possessing, the adjectival suffix refers to whatever is
being possessed.

12/31/92

CHAPTER 3

“Second Declension; Masculine Nouns and Adjectives;
Word Order”

THE SECOND DECLENSION

A declension is a pattern of endings for the different cases and
numbers which a noun falls through. Latin has five declension,
though the great majority of nouns fall into the first three. In
this chapter, you’ll learn one part of the second declension.
(You’ll get the other part of the second declension in Chapter 4.)
Let’s look again at a paradigm for the first declension endings and
compare them to endings of the second declension. Decline the noun
“puella, -ae (f)”.

puella, -ae (f) amicus, -i (m)

Nom. _______________ amicus

Gen. _______________ amici

Dat. _______________ amico

Acc. _______________ amicum

Abl. _______________ amico

Voc. _______________ amice

N/V. _______________ amici

Gen. _______________ amicorum

Dat. _______________ amicis

Acc. _______________ amicos

Abl. _______________ amicis

As you can plainly see, “-a-” is the dominant vowel of the first
declension. With the exception of the dative and ablative plural,
all the case endings have an “-a-” in them. Now let’s compare the
first declension with the second. Although it’s a little more
difficult to see in places, the dominant vowel of the second
declension is “-o-“. Once you see this difference between the
first and second declension, you can detect some of the
similarities.

(1) the accusative singular of both declensions adds “-m” to
the thematic vowel: “-am” and “-um” (originally “-om”).
(2) the ablative singular is just the long thematic vowel:
“-a-” and “-o-“.
(3) the genitive plural is the ending “-rum” added to the
thematic vowel: “-arum” and “-orum”.
(5) the dative and ablative plural are formed alike:

First Declension: “a-” + “-is” = “-ais” = “-is”
Second Declension: “o-” + “-is” = “-ois” = “-is”

(6) the accusative plural in both declensions is the thematic
vowel + “-s:” “-as” and “-os”.

So let’s set out the cases endings for the second declension:

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. ____________________ ____________________

Gen. ____________________ ____________________

Dat. ____________________ ____________________

Acc. ____________________ ____________________

Abl. ____________________ ____________________

Voc. ____________________ ____________________

2ND DECLENSION NOUNS IN -ER AND -IR; STEM CHANGES

As I said, this is the basic pattern of endings for nouns of the
second declension, and all second declension nouns will basically
use these endings. There are second declension nouns, however,
which do not follow this pattern precisely, but which use slight
variations of it. To begin with, not all second declension nouns
end in “-us” in the nominative singular. Some end in “-er” and one
common noun ends in “-ir”. So go back to the blank for the
nominative singular and add the variant nominative endings “-er”
and “-ir”.

Let’s have a look at a second declension noun that ends in “-er” in
the nominative singular: “puer, -i (m)” (boy). Just to review, how
do you know that this noun belongs to the second declension? The
answer is the genitive singular ending listed as the second entry.
It’s “-i”, the genitive singular ending of the second declension.
So what will the form of “puer” be in the genitive singular?
That’s easy too. It’ll be “pueri”, (stem + “-i). Now let’s decline
“puer” through all its cases in both numbers.

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. ____________________ ____________________

Gen. ____________________ ____________________

Dat. ____________________ ____________________

Acc. ____________________ ____________________

Abl. ____________________ ____________________

Voc. ____________________ ____________________

Let’s try another second declension noun which ends in “-er”
in the nominative singular: “ager, agri (m)” (field). The
nominative is the “-er” type you saw in “puer”, but look at the
genitive singular. Instead of just giving you an abbreviation for
the genitive singular ending — “-i” — the dictionary is telling
you something more. Here you have a full form, “agri”, for the
genitive entry of the noun. The case ending obviously is “-i”, so
the noun belongs to second declension. If you take off the
genitive singular ending “-i” you’re left with “agr-“, and what’s
that?

We need to pause here and refine what we mean by a “stem” of
a noun. As you probably recall, the stem of a noun is the basic
form of the noun to which you then add the case endings. But
despite the attractive notion that the “stem” of a noun is the
nominative singular minus the case ending, a stem of a noun is
really the form which is the root of all cases except the
nominative singular. This is not to say that the nominative
singular will never be the true stem of the word. In some
declensions it is. But not always. Look at “ager” again. The
stem of the word is found not by looking at the nominative entry,
but by dropping the genitive singular ending from “agri”, leaving
“agr-“. So the true stem of this word is “agr-“, not “ager-“.
Hence we say that “ager” is a stem changing noun, or that it has a
stem change. This is because the stem is not apparent in the
nominative entry. Let’s decline “ager, agri (m)”. Remember, the
stem is “agr-“:

SINGULAR PLURAL

N/V. ____________________ ____________________

Gen. ____________________ ____________________

Dat. ____________________ ____________________

Acc. ____________________ ____________________

Abl. ____________________ ____________________

Can you see now why it’s important that a dictionary begin to
decline the noun for you by giving you the genitive singular? If
you weren’t given “agri”, after “ager”, you wouldn’t know the
declension of the noun, nor would you know that “ager-” is not the
true stem. If a noun is not a stem-changing noun, then the
dictionary will simply put the genitive ending in the second entry.
But if it’s a stem changing noun, the dictionary must indicate
that. Examine the following nouns and see how the dictionary
conveys the necessary information.

ENTRY STEM MEANING

gener, -i (m) gener- son-in-law
magister, -tri (m) magistr- teacher
socer, -i (m) socer- father-in-law
liber, -bri (m) libr- book
vesper, -i (m) vesper- evening
signifer, -i (m) signifer- standard bearer

The noun “vir, -i (m)” represents another class of second
declension nominative singular endings. Is there a stem change
indicated in the genitive singular? No, there isn’t, so it behaves
just like “puer”. Decline it.

SINGULAR PLURAL

N/V. ____________________ ____________________

Gen. ____________________ ____________________

Dat. ____________________ ____________________

Acc. ____________________ ____________________

Abl. ____________________ ____________________

NOUNS ENDING IN -IUS

Nouns whose stem ends in an “-i-” need a closer look. “Filius, -ii
(m)” is a second declension noun and the stem is “fili-” (“filius”
minus the “-i” of the genitive singular). But the second entry has
an extra “-i”. What’s that all about? Don’t be disturbed. Often
when a stem ends in an “-i-” the dictionary likes to reassure you
that despite its odd appearance, the genitive singular form really
ends with two “i’s”: “filii”. Similarly, the dative and ablative
plurals: “filiis”. It may look odd, but there was a noticeable
difference in the way the two “i’s” would have been pronounced.
The first is short, the second is long, so “filii”, would have be
pronounced “FEE leh ee”. But in fact even the Romans weren’t very
comfortable with this arrangement, and often the “i’s” were
simplified to one long “-i-” to “fili” or “filis”. To be
consistent, Wheelock always uses the double “i”.

In the vocative singular, however, the “i” at the end of the
stem does cause a change. “Filius” is an “-us” ending second
declension noun so the vocative singular should be “filie”. But
short “i” and short “e” are so similar in sound that some
simplification was inevitable. The final form is not “filie” but
“fili”. So also in the name “Virgilius”: not “Virgilie”, but
“Virgili”. Decline “filius, -ii (m)”.

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. ____________________ ____________________

Gen. ____________________ ____________________

Dat. ____________________ ____________________

Acc. ____________________ ____________________

Abl. ____________________ ____________________

Voc. ____________________

ADJECTIVES

Let’s review for a moment. You remember that adjectives are words
which qualify nouns, and that an adjective will “agree” with the
noun it modifies. By “agreeing” we mean that it will have the same
number, gender, and case as the noun it’s modifying. You also know
that an adjective must be able to modify nouns of all three
genders, and that to modify a feminine noun an adjective uses the
case endings from the first declension. For example, translate and
decline “great wisdom”. “Wisdom” in Latin is “sapientia, -ae (f)”,
a feminine noun of the first declension, as you can tell from the
entry. “Great” is the adjective modifying “wisdom” so it must
agree in number, gender and case with “sapientia”. The stem of the
adjective is “magn-“, and the case endings you must use are those
of the first declension, since “sapientia” is feminine.

SINGULAR

great wisdom

N/V. _______________ _______________

Gen. _______________ _______________

Dat. _______________ _______________

Acc. _______________ _______________

Abl. _______________ _______________

PLURAL

N/V. _______________ _______________

Gen. _______________ _______________

Dat. _______________ _______________

Acc. _______________ _______________

Abl. _______________ _______________

What happens when an adjective needs to modify a masculine
noun? To modify a masculine noun an adjective uses the case
endings from the second declension. That’s fine and good, but we
have a problem. Which of the three singular nominative forms of
the second declension do they use: “-us”, “-er”, or “-ir?” The
answer is that some adjectives will us “-us” and some will use
“-er”. (None use “-ir”.) All the adjectives we’ll be looking at
for the next two chapters use the “-us” ending and decline after
that pattern. In chapter five you’ll get the “-er” type, so I’ll
postpone discussion of that kind until then (although there’s
nothing really very complicated about it). Let’s suppose you want
to modify the noun “poeta, -ae (m) with adjective for “great?”
Look up “great” in the dictionary and write down what you see.
(Make sure you look it up! I’ll wait right here.)

great ______________________________

Now what kind of an entry is this? The convention for listing an
adjective is different from that for a noun. The first entry tells
you how an adjective modifies a masculine noun, the second tells
you how it modifies a feminine noun, and the third how it modifies
a neuter noun (and we’ll learn about that in the next chapter). So
let’s look at the first entry: “magnus” tells you that the
adjective uses the “-us” type endings from the second declension to
modify a masculine noun; the “-a”, which stands for the nominative
singular of the first declension, tells you that it uses first
declension endings to modify feminine nouns; the “-um” tells you
which endings to use for neuter nouns. Now, how did you find the
stem of “-us” type nouns of the second declension? Do you
remember? You simply drop off the “-us” ending, and that’s the
stem. What’s the stem of the adjective “magnus, -a, -um?” I hope
you guessed “magn-“. So an entry like this is a short-hand way of
saying this:

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER

-us -a -um
-i -ae
-o -ae
-um -am
-o -a
-e -a
magn- +
-i -ae
-orum -arum
-is -is
-os -as
-is -is

So decline “great poet”. (WARNING: Remember that agreement means
same number, gender, and case; not form which look alike!)

SINGULAR PLURAL

great poet great poets

Nom. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________

Gen. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________

Dat. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________

Acc. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________

Abl. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________

Voc. ____________ ____________ ____________
____________

APPOSITION

Consider this English sentence: “Daniel, my brother, you were older
than me [sic]”. You can easily see that “brother” is giving you
more information about “Daniel”; that is, “brother” is modifying or
qualifying “Daniel”. In this sense, at least, “brother” is acting
like an adjective. But since “brother” is a noun, not an
adjective, it cannot qualify another noun in quite the same way an
adjective does. We call this modifying relationship between nouns
“apposition”. We would say “brother” is in “apposition” to
“Daniel”.

In Latin also, nouns can be set in apposition to each other
for modification. So one noun is modifying another noun —
something like an adjective modifying a noun. But, obviously a
noun cannot agree with the noun it’s modifying the same way an
adjective does. And why not? Nouns all have gender inherent in
them, so a noun can never change its gender to a agree in gender
with a noun it’s modifying. But it can agree with the noun it’s
modifying in case, and it will. In Latin, when a noun is in
apposition to another noun, the noun doing the modifying will agree
with the modified noun in case. “Gaium, meum filium, in agris
video”. (I see Gaius, my son, in the fields.) “Gaium” is
accusative because it’s the direct object of the verb “video”.
Therefore the word for “son” must also be in the accusative case,
since it’s telling us more about Gaius, and Gaius, as the object of
the verb “to see”, is in the accusative case.

VOCABULARY PUZZLES

de + abl.; in + abl. Like English, prepositions in Latin will
take the noun they’re governing in a case
other than the nominative. We wouldn’t
say in English “with I” or “to she:” we
say “with me” and “to her”. But in Latin,
some prepositions will have to be
followed by the accusative case; others
by the ablative case. (And some can be
followed by both, though the meaning
changes slightly.) Therefore, whenever
you learn a preposition, you must also
memorize the case it takes.

pauci, -ae This is an adjective, but unlike others
adjectives, the word for “few” has no
singular forms. (That’s logical.) So
the dictionary starts its listing in the
nominative plural. As you can see, the
“-i” and the “-ae” endings are the second
and first declension nominative plural
endings. So this adjective declines like
“magnus, -a, -um” with the exception that
it has no singular forms.

meus, -a, [-um] The adjective means “my”, and it agrees
with whatever is being owned. The stem is
“me-“. It has an irregular vocative
singular ending. Instead of “mee”, you
have “mi”. So it’s “mi amice” for “Hey,
my friend”.

Romanus, -a, [-um] This is an adjective, but it can be used
as a noun. Like “American”. It’s an
adjective — like “American Pie” — but
it can also be used for a person: “she’s
an American”, or “The Americans are
coming”. Hence, “Romani” can mean “the
Romans”, and “Romana” can mean a “Roman
woman”. On the other hand, we can also
say “Romana patria”: “the Roman
fatherland”; or “Romani libri”: “Roman
books”.

12/31/92

CHAPTER 4

“Neuters of the Second Declension; Summary of Adjectives;
Present Indicative of Sum;
Predicate Nouns and Adjectives”

Despite its lengthy title, you’ll find that much of this chapter
only adds incrementally to concepts you’ve already learned. That’s
the way it’s going to be for most of these chapters. Now that
you’ve learned the basics, the details will be much easier for you
to grasp.

NEUTERS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION

The second declension is the pattern of cases ending which has an
“-o-” for its thematic vowel. The nominative singular has three
possible forms — “-us”, “-er”, and “-ir”. Sometimes nouns which
end in “-er” in the nominative undergo a stem change from the
nominative to the genitive singular. To find the real stem of the
noun, you simply drop off the genitive ending “-i” from the second
entry in the dictionary. Finally, you may remember that the vast
majority of nouns ending in “-us”, “-er”, and “-ir” in the
nominative singular are masculine.

What you learned in the last chapter was not the whole story
on the second declension. The second declension is divided into
two parts: the part you know, and a set of endings which you’re
going to learn now. This second part contains only neuter nouns.
This is important to remember. Unlike the first declension and the
first part of the second, whose nouns could be either feminine or
masculine, all nouns which follow this second part of the second
declension are neuter. Next, the endings of this pattern are
nearly identical to those of the second declension you already
know. The differences are that (1) the nominative singular ending
is always “-um”; (2) the stem is found by dropping off nominative
“-um” ending and there is never a stem change; (3) the neuter
nominative and accusative plural endings are “-a”. You don’t have
to worry about the vocative singular; it’s the same as the
nominative singular. Remember, the only place in Latin where the
vocative differs from the nominative is in the singular of “-us”
ending second declension nouns and adjectives.

A dictionary entry for a noun of this type will look like
this: “x”um, -i (n) (where “x” is the stem). Since there is never
a stem change, the second entry only gives you the genitive
singular ending so that you can see the declension of the noun.
The “-um” of the nominative singular and then the “-i” in the
genitive tell you that the noun is a neuter noun of the second
declension, and that it therefore fits into the subcategory of the
second declension. Here are some examples for you to decline and
a second declension noun of the “us” type for comparison:

numerus, -i (m) periculum, -i (n) consilium, -ii (n)

Nom. ______________ _______________ _______________

Gen. ______________ _______________ _______________

Dat. ______________ _______________ _______________

Acc. ______________ _______________ _______________

Abl. ______________ _______________ _______________

Voc. ______________

N/V. ______________ _______________ _______________

Gen. ______________ _______________ _______________

Dat. ______________ _______________ _______________

Acc. ______________ _______________ _______________

Abl. ______________ _______________ _______________

There are a couple of hard and fast rules pertaining to the
inflection of all neuter nouns, no matter which declension they
belong to, which you may want to commit to memory: (1) the
nominative and accusative forms of neuters nouns are always like
each other, and (2) the nominative plural — and hence neuter
plural because of rule (1) — is always a short “-a”.

ADJECTIVES

You recall that adjectives are words which modify nouns, and that
in Latin an adjective must agree with the noun it’s modifying. By
“agreeing”, we mean it must have the same number, gender, and case.
An adjective acquires number and case by declining through a
declension — just like nouns — but how does an adjective change
gender? An adjective changes gender by using different
declensional patterns. If an adjective needs to modify a feminine
noun, it uses endings from the first declension; if it has to
modify a masculine noun, it uses the second declension endings
which are used by “-us” and “-er” ending nouns. So how do you
imagine will an adjective modify a neuter noun? Let’s look at a
dictionary entry for a typical adjective: “magnus, -a, -um”.

The first entry, as you recall, tells you which declension the
adjective uses to modify a masculine noun. It tells you by giving
you the nominative singular ending of the declension it uses. The
second entry is the nominative singular ending of the declension
the adjective uses to modify a feminine noun. The third entry is
the nominative singular of the declension the adjective uses to
modify a neuter noun.

So how does the adjective “magnus, -a, -um” modify a neuter
noun? It uses the “-um” neuter endings of the second declension,
so “magnus”, when it’s modifying a neuter noun, will follow the
same pattern as a noun like “periculum, -i (n). Write out all the
possible forms of the adjective “great”. (Check your work against
Wheelock, p. 18.)

“magnus, -a, -um”

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER

Nom. _______________ _______________ _______________

Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________

Dat. _______________ _______________ _______________

Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________

Abl. _______________ _______________ _______________

Voc. _______________

N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________

Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________

Dat. _______________ _______________ _______________

Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________

Abl. _______________ _______________ _______________

THE VERB “TO BE”

As in most languages, the verb “to be” in Latin is irregular
— i.e., it doesn’t follow the normal pattern of conjugation of
other verbs. Wheelock says it’s best just to memorize the forms by
sheer effort and rote. That’s a perfectly acceptable suggestion.
But the verb is actually much more regular than it may first
appear. If you wish, you may try to follow my discussion about the
verb to get a glimpse behind its seemingly bizarre appearance. If
not, just memorize the forms outright and skip over the paragraphs
in between the lines of asterisks.

****************************************

For those of you going on with me, let’s recall a couple of
things. A verb conjugates by adding personal endings to the stem
of the verb. You find the stem of the verb by dropping of the
“-re” ending of the infinitive, and what you’re left with is the
stem. The final vowel of the stem tells you the conjugation of the
verb: “-a-” for a first conjugation, “-e-” for the second
conjugation, etc. So let’s have a look at the infinitive of the
verb “to be” to find its stem. The infinitive is “esse”. What
kind of an infinitive is this?

We need to back up a little. Although you were told
otherwise, the real infinitive ending of a Latin verb is not “-re”
at all, but “-se”. Why does the “-se” become “-re”? It’s an
invariable rule of Latin pronunciation that an “-s-” which is
caught between two vowels — we call it “intervocalic” — turns
into a “-r-“. So the reason “laudare” is not “laudase” is that the
original intervocalic “-s-” became an “-r-“. So let’s look again
at the infinitive for the verb “to be”: “esse”. If we drop off
the infinitive ending “-se”, we’re left with the stem “es-” for the
verb. But the stem has no final vowel. For this reason we call
“esse” an “athematic verb”, because its stem ends in a consonant,
not a vowel, as other verbs do. To conjugate the verb, we should
therefore add the personal endings directly to the final “-s” of
the stem. This is what the formula should be (don’t fill in the
conjugated form yet).

STEM + PERSONAL ENDING = CONJUGATED FORM

1st es + m = _______________

2nd es + s = _______________

3rd es + t = _______________

1st es + mus = _______________

2nd es + tis = _______________

3rd es + nt = _______________

Try to pronounce the final form for the first person singular
“esm”. Do you hear how you’re automatically inserting a “u” sound
to make the word pronounceable? It sounds like “esum”. Try to
pronounce “esmus”. The same thing happens between the “s” and the
“m”. You almost have to insert a “u”. Now pronounce “esnt”. Same
thing, right? This is what happened to these forms. Over time, a
“u” sound became a part of the conjugation of the verb, and the
initial “e-” of the stem of all the forms with this “u” was lost.
(I can’t account for that.) Write out the resulting forms. Now
look at the remaining forms. Is there any trouble adding an “s” or
a “t” to the final “s-” of the stem? No. In fact, in the second
person singular, the “s” of the personal ending just gets swallowed
up by the “s” of the stem: “es + s = es”. Where there was no
complication in pronouncing the forms, the “e-” of the stem stayed.
Now write out the remaining forms of “to be” in Latin.

****************************************

As with other Latin verbs, the basic form of “to be” is
considered to be the first person singular, and that’s how the verb
will be listed in the dictionary, followed by the infinitive: “sum,
esse”. So when I want to refer to the Latin verb “to be”, I’ll say
the verb “sum”. You can also see why it’s going to be important to
memorize all these forms well. You can’t look up “estis” or “es”.
You must reduce these conjugated forms to a form that will appear
in the dictionary: you must know that these forms are from “sum”.

THE SENTENCE: SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

We divide sentences into two parts: the subject, which is what’s
being talked about, and the predicate, what’s being said about the
subject. Basically, the subject is the subject of the verb, and
the predicate is the verb and everything after it. For example, in
the sentence “Latin drives me crazy because it has so many forms”,
“Latin” is the subject, and everything else is the predicate. Of
course, the full story of subject and predicate is more involved
than this, but this will get us by for now.

PREDICATE NOMINATIVES, TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

In Latin the subject of a verb is in the nominative case. You know
that. So it may seem to follow that, if the subject of the verb is
the subject of the sentence, that the nominative case should be
entirely limited to the subject of the sentence. That is, we
shouldn’t expect there ever to be a noun in the nominative case in
the predicate. Nouns in the nominative case should be the subject
of verbs, and the subject of verbs is in the subject clause of the
sentence, not in the predicate. But we do find nouns in the
nominative in the predicate. When we do, we call them, logically
enough, “predicate nominatives”. How does it happen that a
nominative case shows up in the predicate, after the verb?

We divided verbs into two broad classes: verbs which transfer
action and energy from the subject to something else (the object),
and verbs in which there is no movement of energy from one place to
another. Consider this sentence: “George kicked the ball”. Here
George expended energy — he kicked — and this energy was
immediately applied to an object — the ball — which was changed
as a result of what George did to it. We call a verb like this a
“transitive” verb and the object affected by it the direct object.
In Latin, the direct object of a transitive verb is put into the
accusative case. Now look at this sentence: “The river is wide”.
Is the river doing anything in this sentence to anything else?
Does the verb “is” imply that the subject is acting on something
else? No. There is no movement of activity from the subject to
something else. Verbs like this are called “intransitive” and
don’t take direct objects. In Latin that means they are not
followed by an accusative case. Some more examples of this: “The
dog was running away”, “We’ll all laugh”, “The clown didn’t seem
very happy”.

Sometimes it’s hard to tell whether a verb in English is
transitive or intransitive. A rule of thumb is this. Ask
yourself, “Can I ‘x’ something?” (where “x” is the verb you’re
investigating). If the answer is “yes” then the verb is
transitive; if “no” then it’s intransitive. “Can I see something?”
Yes; therefore the verb “to see” is transitive. “Can I fall
something?” No; therefore “to fall” is intransitive.

THE COPULATIVE VERB “SUM”

The verb “to be” is obviously an intransitive verb — there is no
movement of energy from the subject to an object — but it has an
interesting additional property. What are we actually doing when
we use the verb “to be?” We are in effect modifying the subject
with something in the predicate. In the sentence “The river is
wide”, “river” is the subject and “wide” is an adjective in the
predicate that is modifying “river”. Even though it’s on the other
side of the verb and in the predicate, it’s directly tied to the
subject. In Latin, therefore, what case would “wide” be in? Think
of it this way. “Wide” is an adjective, and it’s modifying the
“river”, even though it’s in the predicate. Adjectives in Latin
must agree in number, gender and case with the nouns they modify,
so “wide” has to be in the nominative case. It’s modifying
“river”, right? What the verb “to be” does is to tie or link the
subject directly to something in the predicate, and for that reason
we call the verb “to be” a “linking” or “copulative” verb. This
principle has a special application in Latin, which has a full case
system. When the verb “sum” links the subject with an adjective in
the predicate, the adjective agrees with the subject.

Donum est magnum. Dona sunt magna.

nominative = nominative nominative=nominative
neuter = neuter neuter = neuter
singular = singular plural = plural

When “sum” links the subject with a noun in the predicate,
however, we have a bit of a problem. Nouns have fixed gender, so
the noun in the predicate can’t agree with the subject noun in
quite the same way an adjective can. A noun in the predicate has
its own gender which it cannot change. But a noun in the predicate
which is tied to the subject by “sum”, will agree with the subject
in case. Think of the verb “sum” as an equal sign, with the same
case on both sides.

Mea vita est bellum (war).
nominative =nominative
feminine ~ neuter
singular = singular

VOCABULARY PUZZLES

Look at these two dictionary listings:

1. bellum, -i (n) “war”
2. bellus, -a, -um “beautiful”

The first is an entry for a noun, the second an entry for an
adjective. What are the differences? An entry for a noun starts
with the nominative singular form, then it gives you the genitive
singular. It actually starts to decline the noun for you so that
you can tell the noun’s declension and whether the noun has any
stem changes you should be worried about. The final entry is the
gender, since nouns have fixed gender which you must be given. For
a noun, therefore you must be given (1) the nominative form, (2)
the stem, (3) the declension, and (4) the gender.

An entry for an adjective, by contrast, has different
information to convey. For an adjective, you must know which
declension it’ll use to modify nouns of different gender, and
that’s what the “-us, -a, -um” is telling you. But there is an
important omission from the adjective listing. There is no gender
specified, and how could there be, adjectives change their gender.
As you’ll see later, this is the one sure sign that a word you’re
looking at is an adjective: if it has declension endings listed but
no gender.

You may also be concerned that, given the similar appearance
of these two words, you may mix them up in your sentences.
Certainly there will be some overlap of the two forms. For
example, “bella” is a possible form of the noun “bellum” and the
adjective “bellus, -a, -um”. But there are also many forms which
“bellus, -a, -um” can have which “bellum, -i (n)” can never have.
For example, “bellarum” can’t possibly come from a second
declension neuter noun. Neither can “bellae”, “bellas”, “bellos”,
“bella”, and some others. If you see “bell- something” in your
text, first ask yourself whether the case ending is a possible form
from the neuter noun for war. If not, then it’s from the adjective
for “pretty”. In the instances where the forms do overlap, you’ll
have to let context and your good judgment tell you which it is.

12/31/92

CHAPTER 5

“First and Second Conjugations: Future Indicative Active;
Adjectives of the First and Second Declension in -er”

FUTURE TENSE OF FIRST AND SECOND CONJUGATION VERBS

When you want to put an English verb into the future tense, you
use the stem of the verb and put “will” in front of it: “I see”
becomes “I will see”; “They have” becomes “They will have”; etc.
We call the additional word “will” a “helping verb”, or, more
learnedly, an “auxiliary verb”. No matter what you call it, the
“will” is modifying the way the listener will understand the
action of the verb “to see” and “to have”. In Latin, the future
tense is formed differently, but it still involves the addition
of something to the stem of the verb. The formula for forming
the future tense of first and second conjugation verbs in Latin
is this: “stem + be + personal endings”. The stem of the verb,
you remember, is what’s left after you’ve dropped off the “-re”
of the infinitive (the stem includes the stem vowel). The “-be-”
is the sign of the future and is attached directly to the stem.
Then you add the normal personal endings you used in the present
tense directly to the tense sign “be”. So let’s start to
conjugate the future tense of a first and second conjugation
verb. Here are the tables. (Don’t fill in the conjugated form
just yet.)

I. FUTURE OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION: laudo, laudare

STEM + TENSE SIGN + PERS. END. = CONJUGATED
FORM

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

II. FUTURE OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION: moneo, monere

STEM + TENSE SIGN + PERS. END. = CONJUGATED
FORM

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

_________ + __________ + _____________ =
_______________

All this seems quite logical and straight-forward. But
these is one glitch: the short “-e-” of the tense sign “-be-”
undergoes some radical changes when you start attaching the
personal endings.

(1) Before the “-o” of the first person singular, the short
“-e-” disappears completely, leaving “-bo”.
(2) Before the “-nt” of the third person plural, it becomes
a “-u-“, leaving the form “-bunt”.
(3) And before all the other endings, it becomes an “-i-“,
for “-bis”, “-bit”, “-bimus”, and “-bitis”.

As you can see, the short “-e-” in fact never stays what it is in
any of these forms. And you may very well be wondering to
yourself why I’m showing you all this. Why can’t you simply
memorize the future endings as “-bo”, “-bis”, “-bit”, “-bimus”,
“-bitis”, and “-bunt”, without having to look any farther back
into its history. The answer is you can certainly remember just
the final forms if you wish, but this problem of the short “-e-”
changing to other vowels occurs repeatedly in Latin, and instead
of memorizing by rote each time you come across it, it just seems
easier to learn the rule governing the changes, rather than
encountering the changes each time as unique phenomena. It’s
hard to believe now, but knowing the deeper rules will make your
lives simpler in the future. Now that you know the rules, go
back and fill in the conjugated forms of the future tense.

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION ADJECTIVES IN -ER

Look at this adjective: “stultus, -a, -um”. Do you remember what
this entry is telling you? An adjective spans the first and
second declensions to get the endings it needs to modify nouns of
different genders. This entry is telling you that the adjective
for “stupid” (stem: “stult-“) uses second declension “-us” type
endings when it modifies masculine nouns, first declension
endings when it modifies feminine nouns, and the “-um” category
of neuter endings of the second declension to modify neuter
nouns.

Now let’s look a little more closely at the second
declension. It has two parts, you may remember: the section
reserved entirely for neuter nouns — those ending in “-um” in
the nominative singular — and the section used by masculine and
feminine nouns (the vast majority are masculine). There is a
variety of nominative singular endings in this second group:
“-us”, “-er”, and “-ir”. The nouns which followed the “-us” type
second declension presented two problems: to find the stem, you
simply dropped off the “-us” ending of the nominative case. But
for the second declension nouns which ended in “-er” in the
nominative singular, you had to be more careful. For some of
them, the stem was the form of the nominative singular, but for
others the “-e-” of the “-er” dropped out from the stem. Then
you used the reduced form for all the other cases. The
dictionary has to tell you which “-er” ending nouns had stem
changes, and it does so in the in second entry for the noun.

puer, -i (m)
liber, -bri (m)
ager, agri (m)

The stem of “puer” is “puer-“, the stem of “liber” is “libr-“,
the stem of “ager” is “agr-“. Okay, so much by way of review.

Now look at this word as it appears in the dictionary:
“liber, -a, -um”. What is this? Is it a noun or an adjective?
You can tell it’s an adjective because there is no gender listed
for it. (Remember, an adjective has to be able to change its
gender, so it has no fixed gender, as a noun does.) An entry for
an adjective has to tell you how it will acquire different
genders — which declensional pattern it will use to become
masculine, feminine and neuter — and, you may recall, the first
entry shows you the masculine nominative, the second the feminine
nominative, and the third the neuter nominative.

So have a look again at this adjective. The second entry
looks familiar — it’s the nominative singular ending of the
first declension. This tells you that the adjective “liber”
become feminine by using first declension endings. The “-um”
should look familiar, too. That’s its neuter ending, telling you
it uses the “-um” endings of the second declension to modify
neuter nouns. But what’s the first entry? You know that this is
telling you how the adjective becomes masculine, but what about
the “-er”.

You’ve probably already figured out by now that the
adjective is going to use the second declension endings to modify
masculine nouns, and that it’s going to use the “-er” ending in
the nominative singular. So for “free soul”, you would write
“liber animus”. But what is the stem of the adjective? Remember
that “-er” ending nouns of the second declension often change
their stems when they move out of the nominative singular. The
dictionary tells you about that in the second entry for the
adjective in the genitive singular. That is, the dictionary
actually starts declining it for you. But how will it tell you
whether an adjective in “-er” has a stem change?

The rule is this. An adjective in “-er” which changes its
stem (i.e., drops the “-e”) will use the changed stem in all
genders and numbers and cases except for the nominative masculine
singular. So all you need to see to know whether the adjective
is going to change its stem is the next entry — the feminine
nominative singular — to know about the stem. Look at this
entry.

M F N

pulcher, -chra, -chrum

There, do you see it? The second entry shows you not only how
the adjective becomes feminine, but also that the stem for all
other cases except the masculine nominative singular is
“pulchr-“. Look as this adjective: “noster, nostra, nostrum”.
Stem change, right? Now look at this again: “liber, -a, -um”.
There is no stem change since it is not indicated in the second
entry. So the stem is “liber-” throughout its inflection. Let’s
do a few exercises. Translate and decline the following.

beautiful fatherland our son

Nom. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________

Gen. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________

Dat. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________

Acc. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________

Abl. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________

Voc. ______________
______________

N/V. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________

Gen. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________

Dat. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________

Acc. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________

Abl. ______________ ______________ ______________
______________

VOCABULARY PUZZLES

animus, -i (m) In the singular the word means “soul,
spirit”, the vapory seat of
self-awareness. But in the plural it
often takes on another meaning. It may
mean “courage”, like our expression
“high spirits”, “spirited”, as in “The
losing team put up a spirited struggle”.
It happens often in Latin that a word
will acquire new meanings in the plural.
C.p., the meaning of the English word
“manner” in the singular with its
meaning in the plural: “manners”.

noster, -tra, -trum This is an adjective which means “our”.
That is, the adjective agrees with the
thing that is “ours”. Therefore, it has
a plural form only if the noun it’s
agreeing with is plural. Students are
often lured into thinking that “noster”
will have only plural case endings
because “our” is first person plural.
Remember, “noster” will have plural
cases endings only if it’s agreeing with
a plural noun: “noster filius” (our son)
or “nostri filii” (our sons).

igitur Wheelock tells you it’s post-positive:
it never is the first word in a Latin
sentence (and it’s usually the second
word.) Despite our tendency to put the
English “therefore” at the beginning of
the sentence, “igitur” is never first.
Remember.

-ne We form questions in English by juggling
word order around, and by using
auxiliary verbs. But Latin doesn’t have
that option since word order doesn’t
work in the same way. To ask a question
in Latin, put “-ne” at the end of the
first word of the sentence. The word to
which it is attached becomes the point
of inquiry of the question: “Amasne
me?” (Do you love me?), “Mene amas?” (Is
it me you love (and not someone else)?)

propter + acc. As you know, prepositions in Latin take
certain cases. “Propter” takes the
accusative case — always — and we
translate it, “because of”. Don’t be
thrown off by our English translation.
“Propter” does not take the genitive
case in Latin. It takes the accusative.

satis When we say “I have enough money”, we
use “enough” as an adjective modifying
“money”. In Latin the word for “enough”
is a noun, not an adjective. Latin
follows “satis” with the genitive case,
and says in effect “I have enough of
money” (Habeo satis pecuniae.) You’ll be
pleased to know that “satis” does not
decline — it is always “satis”.

12/31/92

CHAPTER 6

“Sum: Future and Imperfect Indicative; Possum: Present,
Future, and Imperfect Indicative; Complementary Infinitive”

The two verbs which are the subject of this chapter are closely
related — “possum” (“to be able”) uses the forms of the verb
“sum” (“to be”) — so you don’t have to learn two separate
irregular verbs outright. You can tie them together.

SUM, ESSE: FUTURE TENSE

You have already learned the present tense of the irregular verb
“sum”. And those of you who followed my expanded notes on these
forms know the whole truth about the present tense. Those of you
who skipped them, I recommend you go back to that section and
read them now. They will help you with this discussion.

Do you remember how you formed the future tense of the first
and second conjugation verbs? It was something like this:

stem + tense sign + personal endings = conjugated forms

The verb “sum” follows this formula exactly, but it has a tense
sign for the future you haven’t seen before. Let’s start at the
beginning.

(1) The stem of the verb “to be” is “es-“.
(2) The tense sign for the future is short “-e-“. For the
first and second conjugations, the tense sign of the
future was “be-“, and the short “-e-” of the tense sign
underwent changes when the personal endings were added
to it. Do you remember what they were? The short
“-e-” future tense sign will undergo the same changes.
(3) The personal endings are the same you’ve been using all
along: “-o” or “-m”, “-s”, “-t” etc.

So let’s set up a construction table for the future of “sum”. For
now, fill in all the information except the conjugated form.

FUTURE TENSE: “sum, esse”

STEM + TENSE SIGN + PERS. END. = CONJUGATED
FORMS

1st _____ _________ ___________
_______________

2nd _____ _________ ___________
_______________

3rd _____ _________ ___________
_______________

1st _____ _________ ___________
_______________

2nd _____ _________ ___________
_______________

3rd _____ _________ ___________
_______________

There is one more thing you need to know before you can
finish this off. It’s a rule of Latin pronunciation that
whenever an “-s-” is between two vowels (when it’s
“intervocalic”, as the professionals say), it changes from “-s-”
to “-r-“. Now look at the stem of “sum”. “Es-” plus the tense
sign “-e-” will put the “-s-” between two vowels, so the “-s-” of
the stem will become an “-r-“: “ese-” = “ere-“. That, then,
will be the base to which you add the personal endings. Now fill
out the conjugated forms — and remember the changes the short
“-e-” is going to go through. (Check Wheelock, p. 27.)

SUM, ESSE: IMPERFECT TENSE

The imperfect tense is a new tense for you, and we’re not going
to look very deeply into it here. For now, just remember that
the imperfect tense of “sum” is our “was” and “were”. At least
don’t call this the past tense; call it the imperfect tense. The
imperfect tense is formed along the same lines as the future
tense:

stem + tense sign + personal endings = conjugated forms

Obviously, since this is a different tense, the tense sign is not
going to be the same as the future tense sign. The tense sign of
the imperfect is “-a-“. One other slight difference is that the
imperfect tense uses the alternate first person singular ending:
“-m” instead of the expected “-o”. And don’t forget the rule of
“-s-“: when it’s intervocalic, it changes to “-r-“. Fill out the
following table:

IMPERFECT TENSE: “sum, esse”

STEM + TENSE SIGN + PERS. END. = CONJUGATED
FORMS

1st ______ _________ _____________
______________

2nd ______ _________ _____________
_______________

3rd ______ _________ _____________
_______________

1st ______ _________ _____________
_______________

2nd ______ _________ _____________
_______________

3rd ______ _________ _____________
_______________

POSSUM, POSSE: PRESENT, FUTURE, IMPERFECT TENSES

In Latin, the verb “to be able” is a combination of the adjective
base “pot-” (“able”) plus the forms of the verb “sum”. To say “I
am able”, Latin took the adjective “pot-” and combined it with
the present tense of “sum”. To say “I will be able”, Latin used
“pot-” plus the future of “sum”. To say “I was able”, Latin used
“pot-” plus the imperfect of “sum”. For the verb “possum”, then,
it is the verb “sum” provides the person, number, and the tense.

In the present tense, there is one glitch: wherever the verb
“sum” starts with an “s-“, the “-t-” of “pot-” becomes an “-s-”
also. So you see “possum” instead of “potsum” (from “pot +
sum”), and so on. (When a consonant turns into the consonant
which it is next to, we call this “assimilation”. So we would
say “t” assimilates to “s”.)

The one real oddity of the verb is its infinitive. We might
expect “potesse” (“pot + esse”) according to the rules, but the
form “posse” is just one of those unexpected moments in life
where things get out of control. You might want to remember it
this way: the English word “posse” is a group of citizens who
have been granted power to make arrests: that is, they have
“ableness”. Fill out the following charts for the verb “possum,
posse”.

PRESENT TENSE: possum, posse

ADJECTIVE + CONJUGATED FORM OF SUM = CONJUGATED FORM

1st pot ____________________ _______________

2nd _________ ____________________ _______________

3rd _________ ____________________ _______________

1st _________ ____________________ _______________

2nd _________ ____________________ _______________

3rd _________ ____________________ _______________

FUTURE TENSE: possum, posse

ADJECTIVE + CONJUGATED FORM OF SUM = CONJUGATED FORM

1st _________ ____________________ _______________

2nd _________ ____________________ _______________

3rd _________ ____________________ _______________

1st _________ ____________________ _______________

2nd _________ ____________________ _______________

3rd _________ ____________________ _______________

IMPERFECT TENSE: possum, posse

ADJECTIVE + CONJUGATED FORM OF SUM = CONJUGATED FORM

1st _________ ____________________ _______________

2nd _________ ____________________ _______________

3rd _________ ____________________ _______________

1st _________ ____________________ _______________

2nd _________ ____________________ _______________

3rd _________ ____________________ _______________

The only real difficulty with “possum” is the English
translations for it. If you stick with “to be able”, “will be
able”, and “was/were able”, you’ll get through just fine. But
you can also translate “possum” with the English verb “can”. But
“can”, although it is popular in English, is loaded with
oddities. For one, it has no future tense — “I will can??” —
and secondly, the imperfect tense is “could”, which is also a
conditional of some kind or another in English: “Do you think I
could have a dollar?” Try to stay with “to be able” for now, but
be aware of the possibilities of “can”.

THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE

If you were to walk up to a stranger and, out of the blue, say “I
am able”, you’d be answered by a pause. The stranger would be
expecting you to complete your thought: “Yes, you’re able to do
what?” That’s because “to be able” requires another verb to
complete its sense, and the form the completing verb will have is
the infinitive. It needs a completing infinitive (or
“complementary infinitive”). This is true in Latin as well.
“Possum” in all its forms will be followed by another verb in the
infinitive form: “Poterunt videre nostros filios”. (They will be
able to see our sons.)

VOCABULARY PUZZLES

liber, -bri (m) How are you going to keep the noun for “book”
distinct in your mind from the adjective for
“free”: “liber, -a, -um”. For one, the “-i-”
in “liber, -bri (m)” is short, but it’s long in
“liber, -a, -um”. Next, there is a stem change
in “liber, -bri (m)” but not in “liber, -a,
-um”. So if you see an inflected form “libr-
something”, then you know the word means
“book(s)”. Remember this by recalling their
English derivatives: library is from the
stem-changing “liber, -bri (m)”, and “liberty”
is from “liber” in which there is no stem
change. For the most part, derived words come
from the stem of the nouns, not the nominative
singular.

vitium, -ii (n) Please don’t confuse this with the word for
life “vita, -ae, (f)”. Keep them straight this
way: “vicious”, which comes from “vitium”, has
an “-i-” after the “-t”, but “vital”, which
comes from “vita”, does not. “Vitia” means
“vices” or “crimes”; “vita” means “life”.

Graecus, -a, -um Like “Romanus, -a, -um”, this adjective can be
used as a noun: “Graecus” can be translated as
“a Greek man”, and “Graeca” as “a Greek woman”,
or as an adjective: “Graecus liber” = “a Greek
book”.

-que As Wheelock tells you, this word (called and
enclitic because it “leans on” another word and
never stands alone in a sentence) is attached
to the end of the second word of two that are
to be linked. Think of it this way: “x yque”
= “x et y”.

ubi If “ubi” comes first in a sentence which is a
question, always translate it as “Where”. “Ubi
es?” (Where are you?) But when it is in the
middle of a sentence, it can be translated as
either “where” or “when”, and does not mean
that a question is being asked. You must try
them both out to see which of the two
possibilities makes the most sense.

insidiae, -arum (f) We translate this word, although it is always
plural in Latin, as the singular “plot”, or
“treachery”. It’s going to happen often that
ideas which are conceived of as plural in
Latin are thought of as singular in English.

12/31/92

CHAPTER 7

“Third Declension: Nouns”

The third declension is generally considered to be a “pons
asinorum” of Latin grammar. But I disagree. The third
declension, aside for presenting you a new list of case endings
to memorize, really involves no new grammatical principles you’ve
haven’t already been working with. I’ll take you through it
slowly, but most of this guide is actually going to be review.

CASE ENDINGS

The third declension has nouns of all three genders in it.
Unlike the first and second declensions, where the majority of
nouns are either feminine or masculine, the genders of the third
declension are equally divided. So you really must pay attention
to the gender markings in the dictionary entries for third
declension nouns. The case endings for masculine and feminine
nouns are identical. The case endings for neuter nouns are also
of the same type as the feminine and masculine nouns, except for
where neuter nouns follow their peculiar rules:

(1) the nominative and the accusative forms are always the
same, and
(2) the nominative and accusative plural case endings are
short “-a-“.

You may remember that the second declension neuter nouns have
forms that are almost the same as the masculine nouns — except
for these two rules. In other words, there is really only one
pattern of endings for third declension nouns, whether the nouns
are masculine, feminine, or neuter. It’s just that neuter nouns
have a peculiarity about them. So here are the third declension
case endings. Notice that the separate column for neuter nouns
is not really necessary, if you remember the rules of neuter
nouns.

Masculine/Feminine Neuter

N/V. ———- ———-
Gen. -is -is
Dat. -i -i
Acc. -em (same as nom.)
Abl. -e -e

NV. -es -a
Gen. -um -um
Dat. -ibus -ibus
Acc. -es -a
Abl. -ibus -ibus

Now let’s go over some of the “hot spots” on this list. The
nominative singular is left blank because there are so many
different possible nominative forms for third declension nouns
that it would take half a page to list them all. You needn’t
fret over this though, because the dictionary’s first entry for a
noun is the nominative singular. You’ll have to do a little more
memorization with third declension nouns because you simply can’t
assume that it’ll have a certain form in the nominative just
because it’s third declension — as you could with first
declension nouns, where they all end in “-a” in the nominative.

The same is true for neuter nouns in the nominative singular
— although the possible forms for neuter nominative singulars is
much more limited. It’s just not worth the effort to memorize
them. And remember, the accusative form of neuter nouns will be
exactly the form of the nominative, so there’s a blank in the
accusative slot for neuter nouns. It’ll be whatever the
nominative is.

STEMS OF THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS

One very distinctive characteristic of nouns of the third
declension is that nearly all of them are stem-changing nouns.
But the concept of stem-changing nouns is not new for you.
You’ve already worked with it in the second declension with nouns
ending in “-er” in the nominative. Look at this entry for a
second declension noun: “ager, agri (m)”. The first entry for a
noun is the nominative singular, the second is the genitive where
you learn two things: (1) the declension of the noun (by looking
at the genitive ending), and (2) whether there is a stem change
from the nominative to the other cases. In this instance we
learn that “ager” is a second declension noun — because the
genitive ending is “-i” — and that there is a stem change. The
stem of noun is “agr-“, so it’ll decline like this:

N/V. ager N/V. agri
Gen. agri Gen. agrorum
Dat. agro Dat. agris
Acc. agrum Acc. agros
Abl. agro Abl. agris

Now look at an example entry for a third declension noun: “rex,
regis (m)”. Use your experience with second declension “-er”
type masculine nouns to draw out all the important information
you need about this noun. What’s its stem? Now decline it.

N/V. rex + — = rex

Gen. __________ __________ ____________________

Dat. __________ __________ ____________________

Acc. __________ __________ ____________________

Abl. __________ __________ ____________________

N/V. __________ __________ ____________________

Gen. __________ __________ ____________________

Dat. __________ __________ ____________________

Acc. __________ __________ ____________________

Abl. __________ __________ ____________________

How did you do? Check your answers against page 31 in Wheelock.
The nominative form is just what’s listed in the dictionary —
there is no ending in the nominative singular to add. Next, the
stem of “rex” is “reg-“, which you get by dropping off the “-is”
genitive ending of the third declension from the form “regis”
which the dictionary gives. Now decline this noun: “corpus,
corporis (n)”.

N/V. __________ + __________ = ____________________

Gen. __________ __________ ____________________

Dat. __________ __________ ____________________

Acc. __________ __________ ____________________

Abl. __________ __________ ____________________

N/V. __________ __________ ____________________

Gen. __________ __________ ____________________

Dat. __________ __________ ____________________

Acc. __________ __________ ____________________

Abl. __________ __________ ____________________

Did you remember the two rules of neuter nouns? Check your
answers on page 31. How are you doing? Try to decline a couple
more for some more practice.

pax, pacis (f) virtus, virtutis (f) labor, laboris (m)

N/V. __________ _______________ _______________

Gen. __________ _______________ _______________

Dat. __________ _______________ _______________

Acc. __________ _______________ _______________

Abl. __________ _______________ _______________

N/V. __________ _______________ _______________

Gen. __________ _______________ _______________

Dat. __________ _______________ _______________

Acc. __________ _______________ _______________

Abl. __________ _______________ _______________

One of the difficulties beginning students have with third
declension nouns is that dictionaries only abbreviate the second
entry, where you’re given the stem of the noun, and it’s often
puzzling to see just what the stem is. Look over this list of
typical abbreviations. After a very short time, they’ll cause
you no problem.

ENTRY STEM ENTRY STEM

veritas, -tatis (f) veritat- oratio, -onis (f) oration-
homo, -inis (m) homin- finis, -is (f) fin-
labor, -oris (m) labor- libertas, -tatis (f)
libertat-
tempus, -oris (n) tempor- senectus, -tutis (f)
senectut-
virgo, -inis (m) virgin- amor, -oris (m) amor-

ENTRY STEM

corpus, -oris (n) ____________________

honor, -oris (m) ____________________

humanitas, -tatis (f)____________________

frater, -tris (m) ____________________

mutatio, -onis (f) ____________________

pater, -tris (m) ____________________

pestis, -is (f) ____________________

scriptor, -oris (m)____________________

valetudo, -inis (f)____________________

cupiditas, -tatis (f)____________________

MODIFYING THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS

Modifying a third declension noun is nothing to cause any alarm.
It’s done the same way you modify first and second declension
nouns: put the adjective in the same number, gender, and case as
the target noun, and away you go. What causes beginners in Latin
some discomfort is that they can’t quite bring themselves around
to modifying a third declension noun with an adjective which uses
first and second declension endings.

Let’s go through this step by step. Suppose you want to
modify the noun “virtus, -tutis (f)” with the adjective “verus,
-a, -um”. You want to say “true virtue”. You know that “virtus”
is nominative, feminine and singular, so for the adjective
“verus, -a, -um” to agree with it, it must also be feminine,
nominative and singular. So look at the adjective’s listing
closely: how does “verus, -a, -um” become feminine? From the
second entry, you see that it uses endings from the first
declension to modify a feminine noun. Since “virtus” is
feminine, verus” will use first declension endings. You now
select the nominative singular ending from the first declension
— “-a” — and add it to the stem of the adjective. The result:
“vera virtus”. Try some more. Decline the following
expressions.

evil time small city

N/V. ______________ _____________ ____________________________

Gen. ______________ _____________ ____________________________

Dat. ______________ _____________ ____________________________

Acc. ______________ _____________ ____________________________

Abl. ______________ _____________ ____________________________

N/V. ______________ _____________ ____________________________

Gen. ______________ _____________ ____________________________

Dat. ______________ _____________ ____________________________

Acc. ______________ _____________ ____________________________

Abl. ______________ _____________ ____________________________

VOCABULARY PUZZLES

mos, moris (m) In the plural, “mos” takes on a new meaning: in
the singular in means “habit”, in the plural
“character”. This isn’t hard to understand. What
a person does regularly to the point of being a
habit eventually becomes what he is: it becomes
his character.

littera, -ae (f) Like “mos, moris”, in the plural “littera”
takes on an extended meaning. In the
singular it means “a letter of the alphabet”;
in the plural it means either “a letter
(something you mail to someone)” or
“literature”. To say “letters”, — as in,
“He used to send her many letters” — Latin
used another word. “Litterae” is one letter.

post + acc. Means “after”, but it is only a preposition in
Latin, and cannot be used as a conjunction. For
the English “after” in this sentence, “post” is
not a correct translation: “After I went to the
zoo, I went to the movies”.

sub + acc./abl. This preposition, like a few others you’ll
see, can be followed by the accusative or the
ablative case. When it takes the accusative
it means motion to and under something; when
it takes the ablative it means “position
under”. “She walked under the tree” — in the
sense that she was not beneath the tree at
first but then walked there — would be “sub”
+ accusative in Latin; “She sat under the
tree” would be “sub” + ablative. Similarly,
if you say “She walked under the tree” in the
sense that she was walking around under the
tree, that would be “sub” + ablative because
no motion toward was involved.

12/31/92

CHAPTER 8

“Third Conjugation (duco): Present Infinitive, Present and
Future Indicative, Present Imperative Active”

PRESENT INFINITIVE AND PRESENT TENSE

You remember that Latin verbs are divided into groups called
“conjugations”, and the conjugations are distinguished from one
another by their thematic vowels. The thematic vowel of the
first conjugation is “-a-“; the thematic vowel of the second is
“-e-“. You can tell what the stem vowel (its thematic vowel) of
a verb is — and thereby its conjugation — by dropping the “-re”
ending from the infinitive, which is given to you in the
dictionary.

laudo laudare stem: lauda- 1st conjugation
moneo monere stem: mone- 2nd conjugation

Now look at the dictionary entry for the verb “to lead” in Latin:
“duco, ducere”. Simply by looking at the first entry, you might
think that this verb is going to be a first conjugation verb —
it looks like “laudo”. But the next entry looks something like a
second. Find the stem: it’s duce-. You have to look closely,
but the “-e-” of the stem is short. This is the characteristic
vowel of the third conjugation: short “-e-“.

Even if you’re not watching the long marks, you can still
tell a second conjugation verb in the dictionary from a third.
The first entry for a second conjugation verb will always end in
“-eo”, and then the second entry will end “-ere”. The first
dictionary entry of a third conjugation ends simply with “-o” and
then the second entry is “-ere”. So if the first entry of a verb
looks like a first conjugation verb in the first person singular
and if the infinitive looks like a second conjugation verb, then
you have a third conjugation verb. Identify the conjugations of
the following verbs:

ENTRY CONJUGATION ENTRY
CONJUGATION

doceo, docere __________ audeo, audere __________

amo, amare __________ tolero, tolerare __________

duco, ducere __________ valeo, valere __________

scribo, scribere __________ ago, agere __________

We’ll use “duco” as our example (paradigm) of third conjugation
verbs. Now let’s see about conjugating a third conjugation verb
in the present tense. You remember the formula for all verbs in
Latin in the present tense: it’s just the stem plus the personal
endings “-o”, “-s”, “-t”, etc. Fill out the following table,
except for the conjugated form.

PRESENT TENSE OF “duco, ducere”

STEM + PERSONAL ENDINGS = CONJUGATED FORM

1st _________ __________
____________________

2nd _________ __________
____________________

3rd _________ __________
____________________

1st _________ __________
____________________

2nd _________ __________
____________________

3rd _________ __________
____________________

What we need to know is what happens to the stem vowel when you
start attaching the personal endings. In the first and second
declensions this presented no problem, because the stem vowels
are long and strongly pronounced. But short vowels always cause
difficulties in languages and are subject to changes. You
already have experience with what happens to the short “-e-”
before personal endings. Do you remember how you form the future
tense of first and second conjugation verbs? You insert the
tense sign “-b-” in between the stem and the personal endings.
And then the short “-e-” changes:

laudabo – laudabo (“-e-” disappears)
laudabs – laudabis
laudabt – laudabit

laudabmus – laudabimus
laudabtis – laudabitis
laudabnt – laudabunt

This is what happens to short “-e-” before the personal endings.
In third conjugation verb, then, what is going to happen to the
short “-e-” of its stem? Right. It’s going to undergo precisely
the same changes. Now go back to the table and fill out the
conjugated forms of “duco”. (Check the answers in Wheelock, p.
35.)

FUTURE TENSE

Third conjugation verbs form the future tense in a way entirely
different from that of the first and second conjugation. First
and second conjugation verbs insert a tense sign — “-be-”
between the stem and the personal endings. Third conjugation
verbs do two things:

(1) For the first person singular, they replace the stem
vowel with an “-a-” and use the alternate personal
ending “-m” — instead of the more regular “-o”.
(2) For all the other forms, they lengthen the short “-e-”
of the stem to long “-e-“. Since the “-e-” is now
long, it no longer goes through any of the changes it
went through in the present tense. It simply stays
“-e-“. (Except of course where long vowels normally
become short: before “-t”, and “-nt”.)

Fill out the future tense of the verb “duco”.

STEM + TENSE SIGN + PERS. END. = CONJUGATED FORMS

1st duc __________ __________ _______________

2nd _____ __________ __________ _______________

3rd _____ __________ __________ _______________

1st _____ __________ __________ _______________

2nd _____ __________ __________ _______________

3rd _____ __________ __________ _______________

FUTURE OF THIRD CONJUGATION VS. PRESENT OF SECOND CONJUGATION

The way a third conjugation verb forms its future presents an
interesting problem. Write out the present tense of the second
conjugation verb “moneo, monere”, and next to it write out the
future of the third conjugation verb “mitto, mittere” (to send).

moneo mitto

PRESENT FUTURE

1st __________ __________

2nd __________ __________

3rd __________ __________

1st __________ __________

2nd __________ __________

3rd __________ __________

As you can see, except for the first person singular, the endings
of both these verbs look the same: the personal endings in both
these verbs are preceded by an “-e-“. The present tense of a
second conjugation verb almost always looks like the future tense
of a third conjugation verb, and this could cause you some
problems when you’re reading and translating. But not if you
keep your wits about you.

Suppose that you see a form like this in a text you’re
reading: “legent”. What do you do with it? First you recognize
the “-nt” as an ending that’s attached to verbs, so the word
you’re looking at is a verb. You want to look this verb up in
the dictionary, so you must simplify it to its basic form, which
is the first person singular. You remember that a verb is
conjugated by adding personal ending, so to reduce this form, you
drop of the “-nt”. This leaves you with “lege-“.

Now the next thing you have to consider is the “-e-“: is it
the stem vowel of a second conjugation verb, or is it the
lengthened “-e-” of a third conjugation verb as the tense sign
for the future? That is, is this a present tense form of a
second conjugation verb (stem + personal endings), or is it a
future of a third (stem + lengthened “-e-” + personal endings).
What do you do next to find out? You’ve gone as far as you can
with you preliminary analysis of the form. Now you have to
proceed provisionally.

Suppose that the verb is a second conjugation, what will the
dictionary entry look like? The first entry is the first person
singular, the second is the infinitive, so, if this is a second
conjugation verb, the entry will be “legeo, legere”. Right?
Because all second conjugation verbs end in “-eo” in the first
person singular. So you’ve reduced the conjugated form “legent”
to a form you can look up.

The next step is to look it up — but look for exactly what
you’ve supposed the form to be. Look for both “legeo”, and
“legere”. Look it up. You didn’t find it, did you? But if your
analysis was correct, “legeo” must be there. But it’s not. What
does that tell you? It tells you that “legent” is not a form of
a second conjugation verb. (If it were, you would have found
“legeo” in the dictionary, but you didn’t.) Go back to the other
possibility: “legent” could be the future of a third conjugation
verb, where the “-e-” is the sign of the future. So if this is
correct, what will the dictionary entry be? It’ll be “lego,
legere”. Check it out. This time you found what you were
looking for: “lego” means “to read”. So how do you translate
“legent?”

leg- -e- -nt
read will they

Or “they will read”.

The moral of this is that your lives used to be fairly
simple. An “-e-” before the personal endings always used to
indicate a present tense of a second conjugation verb. Now it
could mean a future of a third conjugation verb as well. You
have to proceed cautiously now, and make sure you have thoroughly
mastered your grammar before you start reading. You’ll also have
to use the dictionary more deliberately and intelligently than
you had to before. And that means thinking your forms through
before you turn to the dictionary.

IMPERATIVE

Do you remember the formulae you followed for forming the
imperative of first and second conjugation verbs? It was this:

Singular: stem + 0
Plural: stem + te

And so you came up with forms like this: “lauda”, “laudate”,
“mone”, “monete”, etc. Third conjugation verbs follow the same
formulae, but don’t forget that pesky short “-e-” stem vowel. If
there is something added to it, it changes to an “-i-” (or “-u-”
before the ending “-nt”); if there is nothing added to it, it
stays short “-e-“. So how are you going to form the imperative
of the verb “mitto?” Think.

Singular mitte + 0 = __________

Plural mitte + te = __________

This is how all third conjugation verbs will form their
imperatives — except for four very common verbs. The verbs
“duco”, and three other verbs you’ll get later, form their
singular imperatives by dropping the stem vowel altogether: “duc”
not “duce”. But the plural imperatives are quite regular:
“ducite”.

VOCABULARY PUZZLES

scribo, -ere One way to memorize the conjugation of verbs
is to learn them with the proper
accentuation. A second conjugation verb is
accented on the stem vowel in the infinitive,
so say “MOH neh o, moh HEH reh” for the
second conjugation verb “moneo, monere”. The
stress accent on a third conjugation falls on
the syllable before the stem vowel. So say,
“SREE boh, SCREE beh reh” for the third
conjugation verb “scribo, scribere”.
Similarly “DOO keh re” for “ducere”, “MIT teh
re” for “mittere” and so on.

copia, -ae (f) Another one of those words which have a
different meaning in the plural. In the
singular “copia” means “abundance”; in the
plural — copiae, -arum (f) — it means
“supplies, troops, forces”.

ad + acc Means “to” and “toward”, always with a sense
of “movement to. Students often “ad + acc”.
with the dative case of indirect object,
which we often translate into English with
the preposition “to”. Contrast these two
examples: “I am giving you a dollar (“you”
would be dative case) and “I am running to
you” (“you” would be in the accusative case
governed by “ad”).

ex, e + abl. Students sometimes get hung up on when to use
“ex” or “e”. Use “ex” before any word you
like, but use “e” only before words which
start with a consonant. If you wish, use
“ex” only. That way, you’ll always be right.

ago, agere An idiom with this verb which Wheelock is
going use a lot is “ago vitam”, which means
“to live” (to lead a life). Another is “ago
gratias” + dative, which means “to thank”.
The person being thanked is in the dative
case: “Populus hominibus gratias agent”.

duco, ducere Means “to lead”, but can also mean “to
think”. This extension is logical: we want
our leaders to be thinkers too, don’t we?

12/31/92

CHAPTER 9

“Demonstrative Pronouns: Hic, Ille, Iste”

ENGLISH: THIS, THESE; THAT, THOSE

Consider the following expressions:

this car that car
these cars those cars

The words “this”, “these”, “that”, and “those” are obviously
telling you a little something more about “car” or “cars”. They
are indicating the relative spacial location “car” or “cars” have
to the speaker. When we say “this car” or the plural “these
cars”, we are referring to the car or cars which are nearby:
“this car right here”; “these cars right here”. For the most
part, when we say “that car” or “those cars”, we mean cars which
are some distance from us: “that car over there”, or “those cars
over there”. It would sound odd for someone to say “that car
right here” or “these cars way over there”. So the words “this”,
“these”, “that”, and “those”, are telling us more about the words
they’re attached to; that is, they qualify or modify their nouns.
And we call words which modify other nouns “adjectives”.

As you know, in English adjectives hardly ever change their
form to “agree” with the thing they’re modifying.

“tall tree” and “tall trees”
“bad boys” and “bad girls”

This is different from Latin adjectives, which must change
endings to show the different numbers, genders, and cases of the
nouns they modify. But look again at the adjectives “this” and
“that”. When the nouns they modify become plural, the adjective
itself changes form: from “this” to “these”; from “that” to
“those”. These two are the only adjectives in English which
actually change their forms to match a grammatical feature of the
nouns they’re modifying. They have slightly different forms to
indicate a change in number of the nouns they modify.

So, these words are adjectives, since they qualify nouns,
and since their main purpose is to “point out” the nouns, we call
them “demonstrative adjectives” because they “point out” or
“point to” (Latin “demonstrare”). This is very important to
remember: these words are “demonstrative adjectives”.

THE LATIN DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES: ILLE, HIC, ISTE

Latin also has demonstrative adjectives roughly equivalent to our
“this” and “that”. Now remember, since these words are
adjectives in Latin, they must be able to agree with the nouns
they’re modifying. Therefore, these demonstrative adjectives
must be able to decline to agree with all three different
genders. For the most part, the Latin demonstrative adjectives
decline just like the adjectives you’ve see so far. That is,
they add the first and second declension endings to their stems.
But there are some unexpected irregularities which you simply
must memorize:

(1) The nominative singulars are irregular.
(2) The genitive singular for all genders is “-ius”.
(3) The dative singular for all genders is “-i”.

Keep these irregularities in mind and decline the demonstrative
adjective “that”. Its dictionary listing includes all the
nominatives — just as an adjective like “magnus, -a, -um” does
— so that you can see its declension pattern. The adjective for
“that” is “ille, illa, illud”. (You can check your work in
Wheelock, p. 39.)

STEM: ill-
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER

N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________

Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________

Dat. _______________ _______________ _______________

Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________

Abl. _______________ _______________ _______________

N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________

Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________

Dat. _______________ _______________ _______________

Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________

Abl. _______________ _______________ _______________

As you can see, the inflection of the demonstrative adjective
“ille” is quite recognizable after the nominative, genitive and
dative singulars. With some more time, however, you’ll become
well-acquainted with the irregulars forms “-ius” and “-i” of
genitive and dative singulars. All the demonstrative adjectives
and pronouns in Latin use these alternative genitive and dative
singular endings, as do some adjectives. In fact, we call this
declensional pattern the “heteroclite” declension, because it
seems to be borrowing the genitive and dative singular forms from
somewhere else.

Let’s turn now to the demonstrative adjective for “this”.
The stem is “h-“, and it follows the pattern set by “ille”:
unusual nominatives, alternative endings for the genitive and
dative singulars. But there are four additional things to note
about its declension:

(1) In the genitive and dative singulars, the stem
lengthens to “hu-” from “h-“.
(2) In all the singular cases and genders, and in the
neuter plural nominative and accusative, the particle
“-c” is added to the end of case endings for a little
extra emphasis: like “this here” in English. We call
the “-c” an “epideictic” (eh peh DAY tick) particle.
(3) When the epideictic particle “-c” is added to a case
ending which ends in an “-m”, the “-m” becomes an “-n”.
(4) The neuter nominative and accusative plural endings are
“-ae”, not “-a”, as you might expect from the second
declension.

This is quite a list of oddities, and students have some
difficulty mastering this demonstrative adjective. Keep you
finger on this list of irregularities and try to decline the
Latin demonstrative “this”: “hic, haec, hoc”.

STEM: h- (or hu-)

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER

N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________

Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________

Dat. _______________ _______________ _______________

Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________

Abl. _______________ _______________ _______________

N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________

Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________

Dat. _______________ _______________ _______________

Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________

Abl. _______________ _______________ _______________

Finally, there exists in Latin a demonstrative adjective
that has no real translation into English, though we can readily
recognize its meaning. It can only be rendered into English by
an inflection of the voice, one implying contempt, disdain, or
outrage. Read this exchange:

X: “Did you see the movie I was telling you about?”
Y: “What movie?”
X: “You know, the one about mass killing, torture, moral
outrages and general profligacy. The one you said no
one in his right mind ought to see?”
Y: “Oh, that movie”.

The final “that” in this dialogue corresponds to the Latin
demonstrative adjective “iste, ista, istud”. There is nothing
complicated about the declension of “iste”; It uses the
alternative genitive and dative singular endings “-ius” and “-i”,
and the neuter nominative and accusative singular is “-ud” (like
“illud”). Aside from that, it uses the standard first and second
declension endings.

STEM: ist-

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER

N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________

Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________

Dat. _______________ _______________ _______________

Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________

Abl. _______________ _______________ _______________

N/V. _______________ _______________ _______________

Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________

Dat. _______________ _______________ _______________

Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________

Abl. _______________ _______________ _______________

USING THE HETEROCLITE DECLENSION

As irritating as it may to have to memorize more endings, the
heteroclite declension has a nice advantage. It can often help you
establish the case of a noun. You know that the declensions have
forms which overlap. For example, the form “consilio” from the
noun “consilium, -ii (n) can be either the dative or ablative case
singular. But if it’s modified by a demonstrative adjective, you
can tell immediately which of the two it is:

huic consilio (dative)
hoc consilio (ablative)

Write out the number, gender and case the following nouns are in:

NUMBER GENDER CASE

1. illae civitates __________ __________ __________

2. illas civitates __________ __________ __________

3. isti puero __________ __________ __________

4. isto puero __________ __________ __________

5. illi amores __________ __________ __________

6. illos amores __________ __________ __________

ADJECTIVES USING THE HETEROCLITE ENDINGS: -IUS AND -I

As I mentioned, there are some adjectives in Latin which use the
alternative genitive and dative endings. Aside from that, however,
these adjectives follow the normal declensional patterns. There
are very few of them, but they are important adjectives which get
a lot of use. You’ve got to know them:

alius, -a, -ud “other”
alter, -a, -um “the other”
nullus, -a, -um “no, none”
solus, -a, -um “sole, alone”
totus, -a, -um “whole; entire”
ullus, -a, -um “any”
unus, -a, -um “one”

Judged by their dictionary entries alone, these adjective look
deceptively normal. They appear to be the standard variety
adjectives of the first and second declensions. But their genitive
and dative singulars are not the standard kind. Watch this
declension of the expression “the other man alone”:

Nom. alter vir solus
Gen. alterius viri solius
Dat. alteri viro soli
Acc. alterum virum solum
Abl. altero viro solo

ALIUS AND ALTER

“Alius, alia, aliud” is the adjective which means “other”, and it’s
one of those adjectives which follow the heteroclite declension:
“-ius” and “-i” for the genitive and dative singulars. For a
totally mysterious reason, Latin tends to replace the genitive
singular of “alius” with the genitive singular of “alter”. Hence
we find “alterius” in place of the expected “aliius” in the
declension of “alius”. After that oddity, the declension of
“alius” regains its sanity:

Masculine Feminine Neuter

N/V. alius alia aliud
Gen. alterius alterius alterius
Dat. alii alii alii
Acc. alium aliam aliud
Abl. alio alia alio

etc.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES USED AS DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

So far, so good. The demonstrative adjectives “hic”, “ille”, and
“iste” modify nouns and point them out. Essentially this is their
nature. They are demonstrative adjectives. But they have a very
common extended use. They are frequently used as “demonstrative
pronouns”. Because these words can be used either as adjectives or
as pronouns, we often call them just “demonstratives”. We’ll say
“hic” is a demonstrative, instead of calling it a demonstrative
adjective or pronoun. So what does this mean — demonstrative
pronoun? The demonstrative part of it you understand: it means
something which points out or gives emphasis. But what is a
pronoun? Without getting overly ambitious about setting down an
eternally unassailable definition, let’s just say for now that a
pronoun is a word which takes the place of another word in a
sentence. Here are some examples of pronouns in English:

“It just missed her”.
“She has a most interesting way of speaking”.
“Does he have it”?

As you can see, the underlined words are referring you to something
or someone which has already been mentioned sometime before, so to
recall them we only have to use a sign marker or abbreviation. The
word or idea which the pronoun is replacing is called the
“antecedent” (an te CEE dent). In additional to replacing their
antecedents, pronouns also tell you a little something about the
nature of the antecedent. For example, in the first sentence, you
can tell that the antecedent of “it” is singular and inanimate; the
antecedent of “her” is singular and feminine and animate. This is
an important rule to remember about pronouns: “Pronouns get their
number and gender from their antecedents”.

Let’s look at the English third person pronouns. We divide
the third person pronoun into two groups — those which refer to
animate objects (mainly humans) and those which refer to inanimate
objects. Our third person pronoun observes the distinction
between the genders masculine and feminine of animate things in the
singular; in the plural, however, they make no distinctions among
gender or animate and inanimate.

Singular

Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. he she it
Pos. his her its
Obj. him her it

Plural

Nom. they
Pos. their
Obj. them

Latin pronouns are much more observant of the gender of their
antecedents — as they would likely be, because of the importance
of grammatical gender in Latin. Consequently by looking at the
forms of the demonstrative pronouns “hic”, “ille”, or “iste”, you
can tell much more about their antecedents. This makes
constructions in Latin much more flexible. Look at this sentence.
“Non poteram haec videre”. How would you translate the “haec?”
You can tell that it is neuter, accusative plural from its form and
from the way it’s being used in the sentence. (It’s the direct
object of the verb “videre”.) So its antecedent is neuter in
gender, and plural. So what’s our plural, accusative third person
pronoun? It’s “them”. So this sentence would be translated “I was
not able to see them”. In English, you see, this sentence could
mean that I am looking at men, women, or rocks, since the pronoun
only tells us that the antecedent is plural. But Latin also tells
us the gender of the antecedent, so it can be much more specific.
Now let’s look at a pronoun with a little more context.

“Civitas est magna, sed non possum hanc videre”. (The city is
large, but I can’t see it.)

Remember that a pronoun gets its number and gender from its
antecedent, but it gets its case from the way it’s being used
grammatically in the sentence. The antecedent of “hanc” is
“civitas”; they are both singular and feminine. But “hanc” is
accusative because of the way it’s being used: it’s the direct
object of the verb “videre”. We would translate this into English:
“The city is large, but I don’t see it”. Notice that even though
the pronoun in Latin is feminine in gender — “hanc” — we don’t
translate it “her”, because we use “she”, “her”, and “her” only for
things which are biologically female. Unlike Latin, our nouns
don’t have grammatical gender. Now try this: “Est bona femina, et
hanc amamus”. (She is a good woman, and we love her.) This time,
since the antecedent is biologically feminine, we would translate
“hanc” with our feminine pronoun: “She is a kind woman and we love
her”. You’ll have to take a little care when you translate the
pronouns into English: you’ll use our pronouns “he” and “she”, and
so on, only when the antecedent of the Latin pronouns are
biologically masculine or feminine. Otherwise you’ll use our
neuter “it”, “its”, “it”, and “them”.

One final thing to remember about the demonstratives “hic”,
“ille”, and “iste”. They all three show much more emphasis than
does our simple “he, she, it”, but we have no way to translate that
extra bit over into English. Latin has a weaker third person
demonstrative which is equivalent to our “he, she, it” — you’ll
learn it later — but for now you’ll be translating “hic”, “ille”,
and “iste”, as if they were equivalent to “he, she, it”. It’s just
something we can’t get over into English very easily. Try a few
short exercises. Translate into Latin.

1. Your (sing.) books are good, and we love them [use a form of
“hic”.]

____________________________________________________________

2. Your (sing.) book is good, and we love it [use “ille”.]

____________________________________________________________

3. The danger is great, and I fear [“timeo”] it [use “iste”.]

____________________________________________________________

4. The dangers are great, and I fear them [use “iste”.]

____________________________________________________________

5. She is your [pl.] daughter, and we are giving her [use “hic”]
the money.

____________________________________________________________

6. They are your [pl.] daughters, and we are giving them [use
“ille”] the money.

____________________________________________________________

VOCABULARY PUZZLES

locus, -i (m) Something a little unusual happens to “locus”
in the plural. In the singular, “locus” means
either a physical place or a place in a book
(a passage in literature). As “loci, -orum
(m)” it means only passages in literature. To
say “places” as in physical places (regions),
Latin use a neuter derivative from “locus”:
“loca, -orum (n)”. So “locus” actually has
two different forms in the plural, each with
different meanings: “loci” means “passages”;
“loca” means “regions”.

enim Like “igitur”, “enim” is postpositive.

in + acc./abl. Like “sub” + accusative or ablative, “in” will
take its noun either in the accusative or the
ablative case. When it takes the accusative
in means motion into; with the ablative it
shows only position, with no motion into
involved. You can keep these two straight by
translating “in” + accusative always as
“into”. Say “in” for “in” + ablative.

nunc It’s the temporal “now”, not the logical
“now”. “Nunc” would be a translation for “Now
it’s raining”, not for “Now it’s time to end
this chapter”.

12/31/92

CHAPTER 10

“Fourth Conjugation and -io Verbs of the Third:
Present and Future Indicative, Present Imperative
and Active Infinitive”

REVIEW OF VERBS

Despite its epic-sized title, you’ll find that there is really
not so much to learn in this chapter after all. You already know
the present and future tenses of the first three conjugations,
and you know how to form their imperatives and infinitive. Let’s
have a look at what you know so far about these verbs.

1. The Present Tense

To form the present tense of verbs of all conjugations, you
simply take the stem of the verb (which includes its stem
vowel) and add the personal endings.

2. The Future Tense

To form the future tense of all conjugations, you take the
stem of the verb, then you add on a tense sign for the
future, and then you add the personal endings. For first
and second conjugation verbs, the tense sign of the future
is “-be-“; for the third conjugation, the tense sign is
“-a-/-e-“.

3. The Imperative Mood

To form the imperative mood in the singular, you use just
the stem (without any additional ending); for the plural you
add the ending “-te” to the stem. (The exceptions to this
rule are the third conjugation verbs “duc” and three others
you haven’t seen yet which lose their stem vowel short “-e”
in the singular. Their plural imperatives, however,
resurrect the stem vowel and are entirely regular:
“ducite”.)

4. The Infinitive

The infinitive is just the stem plus the ending “-re” for
all conjugations.

I. First Conjugation: amo, -are

PRESENT FUTURE IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE

1 _____________ _____________

2 _____________ _____________ _____________

3 _____________ _____________

_____________

1 _____________ _____________

2 _____________ _____________ _____________

3 _____________ _____________

II. Second Conjugation: moneo, -ere

PRESENT FUTURE IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE

1 _____________ _____________

2 _____________ _____________ _____________

3 _____________ _____________

_____________

1 _____________ _____________

2 _____________ _____________ _____________

3 _____________ _____________

III. Third Conjugation: mitto, -ere

PRESENT FUTURE IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE

1 _____________ _____________

2 _____________ _____________ _____________

3 _____________ _____________

_____________

1 _____________ _____________

2 _____________ _____________ _____________

3 _____________ _____________

FOURTH CONJUGATION: PRESENT, FUTURE, IMPERATIVE, AND INFINITIVE

This is going to be easy. Look at the entry for the Latin verb
“to hear”: “audio, -ire”. Take a close look. What’s the stem
vowel, and what, therefore, is the stem of the verb? Remember,
you discover the stem of a verb by dropping the “-re” infinitive
ending. What’s left is the stem (including the stem vowel). So
the stem of the verb “to hear” is “audi-“. And it’s to this stem
that you add the various tense signs, personal endings, and so on
to conjugate the verb. Four conjugation verbs are verbs whose
stem ends in a long “-i-“. So how are you going to form the
present tense of this verb? The formula of the present tense —
as you know already — is: stem plus personal endings. (There is
no intervening tense sign for the present tense). In other
words, fourth conjugation verbs are verbs having an “-i-” for its
stem vowel, and it follows precisely the same rules as the other
conjugations for forming the present tense, with the one
exception that in the third person plural, an extra “-u-” is
inserted between the stem vowel “-i-” and the “-nt” personal
ending. How about the future tense? The fourth conjugation uses
the same tense sign as the third conjugation for the future
tense, inserting the letters “-a/e-” between the stem and the
personal endings. Because the “-i-” is long it “survives” the
addition of endings. How about the present imperative? It’s just
like the other conjugations: the stem alone in the singular, and
the stem plus “-te” for the plural. And finally the present
infinitive? The stem plus “-re”.

So you can see that the principal difference between the
fourth conjugation and the others you’ve seen so far is the
quality of the stem vowel. Conjugate the fourth conjugation verb
“to come”.

IV. Fourth Conjugation venio, -ire:

PRESENT FUTURE IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE

1 _____________ _____________

2 _____________ _____________ _____________

3 _____________ _____________

___________

1 _____________ _____________

2 _____________ _____________ _____________

3 _____________ _____________

THIRD CONJUGATION i-STEM: PRESENT, FUTURE, IMPERATIVE AND
INFINITIVE

The third conjugation contains a subset of verbs, called
“i-stems”, that seem to imitate the fourth conjugation. The
third conjugation, as you know, contains verbs whose stem vowel
is short “-e-“. The short “-e-” is almost entirely hidden in the
conjugation of the verbs because it changes to a short “-i-” or
short “-u-” before the personal endings in the present tense.
Still it follows all the same rules as the other verbs when
deriving its different forms. Both the i-stem and non i-stem
third conjugation verbs have the stem vowel short “-e-” — that’s
why they’re both third conjugation verbs. But the “i-stem” third
conjugation verbs insert an extra “-i-” in some places in their
conjugation. These places are really quite easy to remember, if
you know fourth conjugation verbs: a third conjugation “i-stem”
verb inserts an extra “i” everywhere a fourth conjugation verb
has an “-i-“. In fact, you might want to think of a third
conjugation “i-stem” verb as a failed fourth conjugation verb —
as a verb which “wants” to be fourth. Here’s the dictionary
entry form many 3rd conjugation i-stem verbs. Notice the extra
“-i-” in the first entry, and the short “-e-” of the infinitive
in the second:

capio, -ere
rapio, -ere
cupio, -ere
facio, -ere
fugio, -ere

Let’s have a closer look at all this. Write out the present
tense of the following verbs. Remember, a third i-stem verb has
an extra “-i-” every where there’s an “-i-” in the fourth
conjugation.

THIRD (non i-stem) FOURTH THIRD i-STEM

mitto, -ere venio, -ire capio, -ere

1st _______________ _______________ _______________

2nd _______________ _______________ _______________

3rd _______________ _______________ _______________

1st _______________ _______________ _______________

2nd _______________ _______________ _______________

3rd _______________ _______________ _______________

As you can see, the fourth and third i-stem verbs look identical.
But there is a difference. Go back and put in the long marks
over the stem vowel long “-i-” of “venio”. The “-i-” is long in
the second person singular and plural, and in the first person
plural. Now compare the forms of “venio” with those of “capio”
— you can see the differences. The “-i-” of a fourth
conjugation verb is long by nature and “wants” to stay long
wherever it can. The stem vowel of a third conjugation verb is
short “-e-” which turns into short “-i-” or “-u-“. But it will
never become long “-i-” regardless of what ending is added to it.
Now, the difference between a short and long vowel may seem
rather subtle to us, but look again. In Latin pronunciation, the
accent of a word falls on to the second to the last syllable if
the vowel in the syllable is long. If it is short, then the
accent goes back to the third to the last syllable. So, what’s
the difference in the way these forms would have been pronounced?

capmus is pronounced CAH peh muhs
audimus is pronounced owh DEE muhs
Similarly
captis is pronounced CAH peh tis
auditis is pronounced owh DEE tis

So the difference for a Roman between these verbs in some the
forms would have been quite striking.

What about the future tense of the third conjugation i-stem
verbs? They look just like the fourth conjugation verbs: stem(i)
+ “a/e” + personal endings.

THIRD (non i-stem) FOURTH THIRD i-STEM

mitto, -ere venio, -ire capio, -ere

1st _______________ _______________ _______________

2nd _______________ _______________ _______________

3rd _______________ _______________ _______________

1st _______________ _______________ _______________

2nd _______________ _______________ _______________

3rd _______________ _______________ _______________

Now let’s consider the imperative mood. In this case, there
is no difference at all between the third i-stem verbs and the
third non i-stems. And why should there be? They both have the
same stem vowel: short “-e-“.

THIRD (non i-stem) FOURTH THIRD i-STEM

mitto, -ere venio, -ire capio, -ere

SINGULAR __________ __________ __________

PLURAL __________ __________ __________

VOCABULARY PUZZLES

You must be more alert now when you’re looking in the dictionary
for a form. The third i-stem verbs and fourth conjugation verbs
look the same in the first person singular. You mustn’t decide
— even unconsciously — which conjugation a verb is before
you’ve checked with the second entry. The second entry, as you
know, tells you the stem vowel — and the stem vowel tells you
the conjugation. Pay attention.

-ficio, -cipio The short “-a-” of the verbs “facio” and
“capio” change (or “grade”) to short “-i-” in
compound forms of the verb — i.e., when a
prefix is attached. It will save you a lot
of time if you learn to recognize the root
“facio” in the verbs “perficio”, “conficio”,
“interficio”, etc. instead of having to treat
every derived form as an entirely new
vocabulary item.

01/05/93

CHAPTER 11

“Personal Pronouns Ego and Tu; Pronouns Is
and Idem”

THE ENGLISH PERSONAL PRONOUNS

You know what a pronoun is. It’s a word which takes the place of
a noun in a sentence. The word it’s replacing is called the
antecedent. So we can ask, “What is the antecedent of this
pronoun”, whenever we see a pronoun in a sentence. That is, we
are asking, “To what noun is this pronoun pointing?” Read the
following paragraph and pick out the pronouns; ask yourself what
the antecedent is for each pronoun.

“George asked Larry to go pick up the apple. He wanted
an apple so he told him to get it. But Larry couldn’t
find it, so he couldn’t give it to him. Larry told
him, ‘If I had found it, I would have given it to you,
but I couldn’t find it.’ He turned to Sue sitting
nearby and said to her, ‘He’s a failure. Can you find
it for me?’ Sue said she didn’t know where it was
either. ‘I guess you’re just out of luck”, she told
him”.

Alright, that’s enough of that. You see how useful these
pronouns are. If it weren’t for pronouns, you’d have to repeat
every noun and every name each time you wanted to refer to them,
no matter how obvious the reference was. If you don’t believe
me, try reading the paragraph again substituting the antecedent
for each of the pronouns. Pronouns are useful, and in this
paragraph you saw all kinds of pronouns in all kinds of shapes
and varieties, referring to different antecedents and performing
different grammatical task in their sentences. This variety in
form is not merely random. The differences among “he, she, it”,
among “his, her, its”, and “him, her, it” are critical; they tell
you (1) what the likely antecedent is, and (2) how the pronoun is
being used in the sentence of which it’s a part.

If the speaker is referring to him/herself, or to a group of
people of which he/she considers himself to be a part, in a
sentence, he/she uses the first person pronoun. In English, the
first person pronoun has three forms to indicate different cases
(grammatical function).

Case Singular Plural

Nominative I we
Possessive my our
Objective me us

If the speaker is referring to the person or people to whom
he/she is directly talking, he/she uses the second person
pronoun. (Notice that the cases are not so clearly visible in
the morphology of this pronoun; notice also that English makes no
distinction between second person pronoun in the singular and
plural.)

Case Singular Plural

Nominative you you
Possessive your your
Objective you you

Now take a close look at these pronouns. What don’t they tell
you about their antecedents? You can see the difference in
number in the first person pronoun, but you can’t in the second.
What else don’t you know about the antecedents? Do you know
their genders? Do you know simply by looking at the form of,
say, “me” whether the person referred to is male, female, or
neuter? No. In English (as well as in Latin), the first and
second pronouns make no distinction in the forms among the
possible genders of their antecedents. Think about this for a
moment. Why should the languages have evolved this way? Why is
it not important for a speaker to be able to indicate differences
in gender in he first and second persons? Try to figure it out.
Well, let’s take a step backwards for a moment: what is the first
person? It’s the speaker or speakers of the sentence, right?
And what is the second person? It’s the person or people whom
the speaker(s) is (are) directly addressing. So should it be
necessary for someone who’s speaking to indicate his or her own
gender to the listener(s)? Look, I surely know what gender I am,
so there’s no reason to indicate in the grammar of my sentence
what gender I am. Furthermore, the psychology of language is
such that there is an assumed (or real) audience to whom I am
directing my thoughts. There is always an implied second person
in everything written. So, if I’m standing directly in front of
you, talking to you, you should have no doubt about my gender,
because you can see me. Therefore it would be superfluous for me
to add special gender markings to my first person pronouns to
tell you what gender I am. That is plainly visible. For this
reason, then, the first person pronouns make no distinctions
among the genders of their antecedents.

Can you guess now why the second person makes no
distinctions among the genders, either? Right, because if I (the
first person) am directly addressing you (the second person),
then I should be able to tell your gender too. You know my
gender, and I know your gender, because we’re standing in front
of each other. As the first person in our conversation, I don’t
need to remind you, my audience, of your own gender, do I?

Now let’s look at the first and second pronouns in Latin.
They’ll make distinctions in number. And, to be useful in Latin,
they’ll have to decline through all the cases just like Latin
nouns. Here they are:

1st Person 2nd Person

N/V. ego tu
[Gen. mei tui]
Dat. mihi tibi
Acc. me te
Abl. me te

N/V. nos vos
[Gen. nostrum/nostri vestrum/vestri]
Dat. nobis vobis
Acc. nos vos
Abl. nobis vobis

Look at the following examples. You’ll see how useful these
pronouns are.

1. Mittam ad vos filium meum. (I will send my son to you.)
2. Ego scribo has litteras. (I write this letter.)
3. Ego vos video, atque vos me videtis. (I see you, and
you see me.)
4. Cum vobis in terram illam veniam. (I will come into
that land with you.)
5. Cum te in terram illam veniam. (I will come into that
land with you.)

THE “WEAK” DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE IS, EA, ID

So what about the third person pronouns? Here there’s a problem,
one which plagued, and continues to plague, the Romance languages
derived from Latin. First off, the third person pronoun is going
to have to tell you more about their antecedents than the first
and second person pronouns did. If I (the first person) am
talking to you (the second person) directly, I certainly know
what gender you are. But if I am talking to you about something
else (which is the third person) or if I am talking to you about
several things, it would be nice if I could refer the gender of
these topics of conversations. Look at the following passage.

“I’ve got to tell you a story. Yesterday I saw Betty and
Steve. He asked her for an apple. She told him that she
didn’t have any. When he asked her again, she told him to
go buy his own apples”.

Let’s look at this little narrative more closely. The first
“He” — how do you know that it’s referring to Steve and not to
Betty. That’s easy; it’s because “he” is masculine and not
feminine. If the antecedent had been Betty, then you would have
had “She” in place of “He”. Another thing “He” tells you about
the antecedent is that the antecedent is singular. If the
antecedent had been plural, then “He” would have been “They”.
Right? One last thing. Look at the antecedent for “He”. What
case is it in? It’s in the objective (or accusative) case
because it’s the direct object of the verb “saw”. Now look at
the pronoun “He”. What case is it in? It’s in the nominative
case. Why? Because in its sentence it’s the subject of the verb
“asked”. Now look at the pronoun “his” in the last line. What
case is it in? This time the pronoun is in the possessive (or
genitive) case, again because the grammar of the sentence it’s in
requires it to be in the genitive case. Even though all the
pronouns are pointing to the same antecedent, they are all in
different cases in their own sentences. Here is a rule you must
remember:

“A pronoun gets its number and gender from its
antecedent, but it gets its case from the way it’s
being used grammatically in its own sentence”.

Remember that; you’ll need it very soon. Now let’s get on
with the Latin third person pronoun. Here’s what the Latin third
person pronoun must do: it must be able to show the number and
gender of its antecedent, and it must be able to inflect through
the entire case system.

Let’s look once more at the English third person pronoun, so
that you can see how unbelievably flaccid and corrupted it is in
comparison to the majestic power of the Latin 3rd person pronoun.

Singular

Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. he she it
Gen. his her its
Acc. him her it

Plural

Masculine-Feminine-Neuter

Nom. they
Gen. their
Acc. them

As you can see the English third person pronoun is so feeble it’s
hardly worth learning. In the singular, some of the case forms
are identical, and in the plural it makes no distinction among
the genders: “They” can refer to a group of men, women, or rocks.
So it’s not very useful.

But look at the Latin third person pronoun. The third
person pronoun starts its life as a weak demonstrative adjective.
It means something like “the” and it agrees with the noun to
which it’s attached: “the book”. Then, like the other
demonstratives you’ve seen — “ille”, “hic”, and “iste” — it can
be used independently as a pronoun. Let’s see how it works.

First the morphology. The stem is “e-” and basically it’s
declined just like the other demonstratives you’ve seen before.
You remember the heteroclite declension which has the irregular
“-ius”, and “-i” for the genitive and dative singulars? The
nominative singular of the third person demonstrative is a little
odd, and the genitive and dative singular use these alternative
endings Try to fill in the declension. Don’t forget, now, the
stem of the demonstrative is “e-” to which the case endings are
going to be added. Except for the genitive and dative singular,
it will use the standard first and second declension endings
which all standard adjectives use.

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER

N/V. is ea id

Gen. _____________ _____________
_____________

Dat. _____________ _____________
_____________

Acc. _____________ _____________
_____________

Abl. _____________ _____________
_____________

N/V. ii, or ei _____________
_____________

Gen. _____________ _____________
_____________

Dat. _____________ _____________
_____________

Acc. _____________ _____________
_____________

Abl. _____________ _____________
_____________

First let’s see how the weak demonstrative “is, ea, id”
works as an adjective. Don’t forget that as with the
demonstratives “ille”, “hic”, and “iste”, “is” can be used both
as an adjective and as a pronoun. When used as a demonstrative
adjective, “is” has about the same force as our article “the”,
although as you’ll see Latin doesn’t use “is, ea, id” in some
places where we would use our “the”. Briefly, we may say this:
Latin uses “is, ea, id” as a demonstrative adjective to give a
little emphasis to something which has already been talked about.
Like this:

“I have a book”.
“Well, then, give me the book”.
“The book is on the table”.
“Okay, thanks. I’ll get the book myself”.

The underscored “the’s” are candidates for the Latin “is, ea,
id”, because the book the two are talking about has already been
identified, and the speakers are calling just a little attention
to it. Can you see also how “is, ea, id” differs from the strong
demonstrative adjectives “ille” and “hic?” Can you feel the
difference between saying “Give me the book” and “Give me that
book” or “Give me this book?” In English we have a weak “this”
that corresponds nicely to the Latin “is, ea, id” used as an
adjective. We can say for example “I like this book”, without
placing much emphasis on the “this”. That is, we’re not saying
“I like this book [and not that one over there]”.

Here are some examples of “is, ea, id” used as weak
demonstrative adjectives. Of course, without a context it may be
a little difficult to see precisely the shades of feeling, but at
least you can see the grammar involved.

1. Eos libros vobis dabimus. (We will give the [or these]
books to you.)
2. Eas litteras ad me mittet. (He will send the [or this]
letter to me.)
3. Ei libri sunt boni. (The [or these] books are good.)
4. Animi earum feminarum valent. (The courage of the [or
of these] women is strong.)
5. Nulla civitas ea bella tolerare poterat. (No city was
able to endure the [or these] wars.)

Now translate these into Latin, using “is, ea id” for “the”.

1. They will send you the [this] money.

_________________________________________________________________

2. I will give you the money of the [these] men.

_________________________________________________________________

3. The [these] boys are not thinking.

_________________________________________________________________

4. I will come with the [this] tyrant.

_________________________________________________________________

5. That man will discover the [this] plot.

_________________________________________________________________

IS, EA, ID AS PRONOUN

Now, how does a mild-mannered weak demonstrative adjective become
the redoubtable third person pronoun, the glory of the Latin
language? Let’s think back. Remember the demonstrative
adjectives “ille”, “hic”, and “iste?” You remember that they can
be used as adjectives, to add emphasis to the noun they’re
modifying.

“Ille liber est bonus.” (That book is good.)
“Hic vir est malus.” (This man is evil.)
“Cicero videt istas insidias.”
(Cicero see this plot.)
“Possum superare vitia illa.” (I can overcome those faults.)
“Habeo pecuniam illarum feminarum.” (I have the money of those
women.)

That’s all fine and good. But you also remember that the
demonstrative adjective can be used, just like all other
adjectives, without a noun explicitly stated, but only implied.
In order to supply the correct noun, you must do two things: (1)
you must examine the form of the demonstrative, and (2) you must
examine the context. Watch:

“Illae feminae sunt ibi, sed illas videre non possum”.

How do you translate the “illas?” Well, “illas” is feminine,
accusative plural, right? It’s in the accusative because it’s
the direct object of the verb “videre”. But why is it feminine
and plural? Because the noun which has been left out — that is,
the things to which “illas” is referring — is feminine and
plural. And what is that? Look at the context. “Feminae” is
feminine and plural.

“Those women are there, but I can’t see those women” (or,
more idiomatically in English, “but I can’t see them”).

When the demonstratives are used without a noun, they are taking
the place of a noun. And words which take the place of a noun
are called pronouns. Hence the metamorphosis from demonstrative
adjective to demonstrative pronoun is complete.

Now let’s take a look at the weak demonstrative adjective
“is, ea, id”. It will undergo the same process from adjective to
pronoun. Because there is only a weak demonstrative force
attached to “is, ea, id”, we can translate it into English simply
as our third person pronoun: “he”, “she”, “it”, etc.

“Videstisne meos amicos?”
“Video eos”.

“Do you see my friends?”
“I see them”.

All you have to do when you see the weak demonstrative adjective
in a sentence without a noun is to treat it just like third
person pronoun: check the antecedent and find the appropriate
English equivalent. Read these sentences (go very, very slowly
and be reasonable):

“Cicero amat Romam, et in ea beatam vitam agit. Atque ego
civitatem eius amo. Toti amici eius sunt Romani. Vitae
eorum sunt beatae. Et eas magna cum sapientia agunt. Ei
igitur sunt beati. Cicero eos amat, et ei eum amant. Olim
civitas eorum in periculis magnis erat, sed ea superare
poterat, quoniam viros multos bonorum morum invenire
poterat”.

(Cicero loves Rome, and he is leading a happy life in it. I
also love his city. All his friends are Romans. Their
lives are happy, and they are leading them [they are leading
their lives] with great wisdom. They are therefore happy.
Cicero loves them, and they love him. Formerly their city
was in great danger, but it was able to overcome them [the
dangers], since it was able to find many men of good
character.)

THE DEMONSTRATIVE idem, eadem, idem

This is simple. Latin adds an undeclinable suffix to the end of
the inflected forms of the demonstrative “is, ea, id” and comes
out with “the same”. Like the demonstrative “is, ea, id”, the
resulting form can be used either an adjective — “eadem femina”
(the same woman), or as a full-blown pronoun — “video easdem” (I
see the same (feminine) things). Remember, the syntactically
important information comes before the “dem” suffix: “eisdem”,
“eaedem”, etc.

The addition of the suffix cause some distortion of the
spelling of “is, ea, id”. First, in the nominative singular
masculine, the “s” of “is” collides with the “d” of “-dem” and
disappears, but the “i” of “is” becomes long as a result. In the
nominative singular neuter instead of “iddem” we get “idem”. No
big surprise here. Finally, and this isn’t much of a surprise
either, wherever the case ending of “is, ea, id” ends in an “m”,
the addition of “dem” changes the “m” to an “n”. Decline “idem,
eadem,

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SHUTTLE LANDING OPERATIONS

When a mission’s planned in-orbit operations have been accomplished,
the emphasis on board the orbiter turns to the task of preparing the
vehicle for its return to Earth. Usually, the last full day in orbit
is devoted primarily to stowing equipment, cleaning up the living
areas and making final systems configurations which will facilitate
post-landing processing.

The crew schedule, or timeline, is designed such that crew members
are awake and into their “work day” 6 to 8 hours before landing. At
about 4 hours before deorbit maneuvers are scheduled, the crew and
flight controllers have finished with the Crew Activity Plan for that
mission. They now work from the mission’s Deorbit Prep handbook,
which covers the major deorbit events leading up to touchdown. Major
events include the “go” from MCC to close the payload bay doors, and
the final OK to perform the deorbit burn which will bring the orbiter
back to Earth.

However, before the deorbit burn is performed, the orbiter is turned
to a tail-first attitude. (That is, the aft end of the orbiter faces
the direction of travel.) At a predesignated time, the OMS engines
are fired to slow the orbiter down and to permit deorbit. The RCS
thrusters are then used to turn the orbiter back into a nose-first
attitude. These thrusters are used during much of the reentry pitch,
roll and yaw maneuvering until the orbiter’s aerodynamic,
aircraft-like control surfaces encounter enough atmospheric drag to
control the landing. This is called Entry Interface (EI) and usually
occurs 30 minutes before touchdown at about 400,000 ft. At this
time, a communications blackout occurs as the orbiter is enveloped in
a sheath of plasma caused by electromagnetic forces generated from
the high heat experienced during entry into the atmosphere.

As the orbiter glides toward a landing, initially at a velocity of
25,000 feet per second at the EI point, its velocity is gradually
slowed by a series of banks and roll reversals. As the atmospheric
density increases, the forward RCS thrusters are turned off, while
the aft RCS jets continue to maneuver the orbiter until a dynamic
pressure of 10 lb. per square foot is sensed by instruments on board.
At this point, the ailerons on orbiter’s delta-shaped wings begin to
operate and the aft RCS roll thrusters are stopped.

When the dynamic pressure reaches 20 lb. per square foot, the
orbiter’s wing elevators become operational and the RCS pitch
thrusters are stopped. A speed brake on the vertical tail opens when
the orbiter’s velocity falls below Mach 10. Then, at Mach 3.5, the
rudder is activated and the final RCS burns — the yaw jets — are
stopped. The orbiter is now at an altitude of 45,000 ft., and is
beginning what are called “area energy management maneuvers” which
enable it to intercept the landing approach corridor at the desired
altitude and velocity.

As it nears the landing site, the orbiter is steered into the
nearest of two heading alignment circles called HACs. Each has a
radius of 18,000 ft. The orbiter is now in subsonic flight, at
49,000 ft., and about 22 mile from its touchdown point.

In the future, final approach and landing will be controlled at this
point the commander takes over control of the orbiter for final
approach and landing maneuvers by the Microwave Scanning Beam Landing
System (MSBLS) — called autoland — which will take over control 2
minutes before touchdown while the orbiter is at an altitude of
15,489 ft., 9.8 mile from the runway touchdown point, traveling at a
speed of 410 mph. This phase of the flight will be completely
automatic and the crew’s main task will be to monitor the MSBLS.

The initial orbiter landing approach is at a glide slope of 19
degrees. This is six times steeper than the 3-degree glide slope of
a typical commercial jet airliner as it approaches landing.

Just before the orbiter touches down, flare or pull-up maneuvers are
required to bring it into its final landing glide slope of l.5
degrees. At touchdown — nominally about 2,500 ft. beyond the runway
threshold — the orbiter is traveling at a speed ranging from 213 to
226 mph.

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POST-LANDING OPERATIONS

Once the orbiter has rolled to a stop on the runway, post-landing
activities get underway involving the Orbiter Recovery Convoy.
Mission responsibility has shifted from the Johnson Space Center back
to the Kennedy Space Center.

Recovery Convoy. The Orbiter Recovery Convoy consists of a number
of specially-designed vehicles and a team of specialists who safe and
service the orbiter and assist in crew egress. Included in the
convoy are ll special vehicles and units. A brief description of
these follows.

Scape Trailer . Self-Contained Atmospheric Protection Ensemble
(SCAPE), vehicle, parked at a midfield location during landing,
contains the equipment necessary to support recovery including
recovery crew SCAPE suits, liquid air packs, and a crew who assist
recovery personnel in suiting-up in protective clothing.

Vapor Dispersal Unit. The Vapor Dispersal Unit is a mobile
wind-making machine able to produce a directed wind stream of up to
45 mph. It is an adaptation of a standard 14-ft. agricultural wind
machine designed to protect fragile agricultural crops from frost
damage or freezing. It is used by the recovery team to blow away
toxic or explosive gases that may occur in or around the orbiter
after landing. The fan can move 200,000 square feet of air a minute.

Coolant Umbilical Access. This apparatus is a stair and platform
unit mounted on a truck bed which permits access to the aft port side
of the orbiter where ground support crews attach coolant lines from
the Orbiter Coolant Transporter.

Orbiter Coolant Transporters. This unit is a tractor-trailer
carrying a refrigeration unit that provides Freon ll4 through the
orbiter’s T-O umbilical into its cooling system.

Purge Umbilical Access Vehicle. This vehicle is similar to the
Coolant Umbilical Access Vehicle in that it has an access stairway
and platform allowing crews to attach purge air lines to the orbiter
on its aft starboard side.

Orbiter Purge Transporter. This vehicle is a tractor-trailer which
carries an air conditioning unit powered by two 300 KW, 60 Hz
electric generators. The unit blows cool or dehumidified air into
the payload bay to remove possible residual explosive or toxic gases.

Cres Hatch Access Vehicle. The Crew Hatch Access Vehicle consists
of a stairway and platform on which is located a white room equipped
with special orbiter interface seals. It contains pressurized
filtered air to keep toxic or explosive gases, airborne dust or other
contaminants from getting into the orbiter during crew egress.

Astronaut Transporter Van. As its name implies, this van is used to
transport the flight crew from the landing area. It is a modified
recreational vehicle in which the crew can remove their flight suits
and be examined by a physician while enroute.

Helium Tube Bank. This specialized vehicle is a trailer on which is
mounted a 12-tube bank container which provides helium to purge
hydrogen from the orbiter’s main engines and lines. The bank
contains 85,000 cubic feet of helium at 6,000 psi.

Orbiter Tow Vehicle. This unit is very much like the typical towing
units used for large aircraft. However, it is equipped with a
special towing bar designed specifically for the orbiter. It is used
to move the orbiter from the landing facility to the OPF. It also is
used for moving the orbiter from the OPF to the VAB.

Mobile Ground Power Unit. The final special vehicle for orbiter
post-landing operations is the Mobile Ground Power Unit which
provides power to the orbiter if the fuel cells have to be shut down.
It can deliver a nominal load of 10 of direct power to the orbiter.

Augmenting these special orbiter recovery convoy vehicles are various
conventional command and emergency vehicles.

Recovery Convoy Operations. The main job of the recovery convoy is
to service the orbiter, prepare it for towing, assist the crew in
leaving the orbiter and finally to tow it to servicing facilities.

Even before the Shuttle is launched, the recovery convoy begins its
post-landing preparations by warming up coolant and purge equipment,
readying ground service equipment and carrying out extensive
communications checks.

During the Shuttle flight, the recovery convoy is on call in the
event an earlier than planned landing is necessary.

Major activity begins at about 2 hours before the orbiter is
scheduled to land. At this time chilldown of the purge and coolant
units begins. About 1 hour, 40 minutes before landing, the recovery
crew puts on their SCAPE suits and makes final communications checks.
At 5 minutes before touchdown, the recovery convoy is ready to go to
work.

After landing, the first staging position of the convoy is 200 ft.
up wind from the orbiter. The safety assessment team in the SCAPE
van moves to about 100 ft. of the port side of the orbiter. A
SCAPE-dressed crew then moves to the rear of the orbiter using a high
range flammability vapor detector to obtain vapor level readings and
to test for possible explosive hazards and toxic gases. Two readings
from three different locations are made to determine concentrations
of hydrogen, monomethyl hydrazine, and hydrazine and ammonia. If
they find that high levels of gases are present, and if wind
conditions are calm, the Vapor Dispersal Unit — the mobile wind
machine — moves into place and blows away the potentially dangerous
gases.

Meanwhile, the Purge and Coolant Umbilical Access Vehicles are moved
behind the orbiter and the safety assessment team continues to
determine whether hazardous gases are present in the area. Once the
umbilical access vehicles are in position, and as soon as it is
possible to connect up to the liquid hydrogen T-O umbilical on the
orbiter, the ground half of the on board hydrogen detection sample
lines are connected to determine the hydrogen concentration. If the
concentration is less than 4 percent, convoy operations continue.
However, if it should be greater than 4 percent, an emergency power
down of the orbiter is ordered. The flight crew is evacuated from
the orbiter immediately and the convoy personnel clear the area and
wait for the hydrogen to disperse.

If the hydrogen level is below 4 percent, the carrier plate for the
starboard liquid oxygen T-O umbilical is attached to permit insertion
of purge air ducts. After the carrier plates have been installed,
the Freon line and purge duct connections are completed and the flow
of coolant and purge air through the umbilical lines begins.

Purge air provides cool and humidified air conditioning to the
payload bay and other cavities thereby removing any residual
explosive or toxic fumes.

When it is determined that the area around and in the orbiter is
safe, non-SCAPE suit operations begin. First, in the forward orbiter
area, the priority is to assist the flight crew off the orbiter.

The Crew Hatch Access Vehicle moves to the hatch side of the
orbiter. When the access white room is secured, the orbiter hatch is
opened and a physician boards the orbiter to make a brief preliminary
medical examination of the crew. The crew then leaves the orbiter
and departs in the Astronaut Transporter Van.

The flight crew is replaced on board the orbiter by an exchange crew
who make preparations for ground towing operations, installing switch
guards and removing data packages from onboard experiments, if
required.

Meanwhile, after allowing for a 30-minute orbiter tire cool down,
the Tow Vehicle crew installs the landing gear lock pins, and
disconnects the nose landing gear drag link. The Tow Vehicle is
positioned in front of the orbiter and the tow bar connection is
made. Finally, about two hours after landing the orbiter is towed
off the runway.

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SOLID ROCKET BOOSTER RETRIEVAL OPERATIONS

After the Space Shuttle is launched, the Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB)
are jettisoned at 2 minutes, 7 seconds into the flight. They are
retrieved from the Atlantic Ocean by special recovery vessels and
returned for refurbishment and eventual reuse on future Shuttle
flights.

SRB separation occurs at an altitude of about 30 miles The
separated boosters then coast up to an altitude of 47 miles and
free-fall into an impact zone in the ocean about 158 miles downrange.
The so-called splash “footprint” is in an area about 7 miles wide
and about 10 miles long.

When a free-falling booster reaches an altitude of about 3 miles its
nose cap is jettisoned and the SRB pilot parachute pops open. The
pilot parachute then pulls out the 54-ft. diameter, l,100-lb. drogue
parachute. The drogue parachute stabilizes and slows down the
descent to the ocean.

At an altitude of 6,240 ft., the frustum, a truncated cone at the
top of the SRB where it joins the nose cap, is separated from the
forward skirt, causing the three main parachutes to pop out. These
parachutes are 115 ft. in diameter and have a dry weight of about
l,500 lb. each. When wet with sea water they weight about 3,000 lb.

At 6 minute and 44 seconds after liftoff, the spent SRBs, weighing
about 165,000 lb., have slowed their descent speed to about 62 mph
and splashdown takes place in the predetermined area.

The parachutes remain attached to the boosters until they are
detached by recovery personnel.

Waiting near the impact area are two 176-ft.-long,
specially-designed SRB recovery vessels. Their first job is to
recover the main SRB parachutes. Each vessel is equipped with four 5
ft. 6 in. -diameter reels which wind the parachute winch lines onto
the reel similar to the way line is wound onto a fishing reel.

The frustum-drogue parachute also is reeled in until the 5,000-lb.
frustum is about 100 ft. from the recovery ship. The drogue
parachute lines are then reeled in until the frustum can be lifted
out of the ocean by a 10-ton-capacity crane.

Next, the empty SRB casings are recovered using a special device
called the Diver Operated Plug (DOP). This procedure calls for a
team of underwater divers to descend to a depth of about 110 ft. and
place the DOP into the nozzle of the casing. A 2,000-ft.-long air
line attached to the DOP is plugged into an air compressor on the
recovery vessel. Air is pumped into the booster at 120 psi to empty
water from the casing — a procedure called “dewatering.”

Under ideal weather and sea conditions, the retrieval operation
takes about 5 and 1/2 hours. The recovery ships with the retrieved
SRBs in tow, sail to Port Canaveral, travel north up the Banana River
and dock near Hangar AF at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station,
their mission completed.

SRB Disassembly Operations. The retrieval ships take the SRBs to a
dock at the Solid Rocket Booster Disassembly Facility (SRBDF) located
at Hangar AF — a building originally used for Project Mercury, the
first U.S. manned space program.

The SRBs are unloaded onto a hoisting slip and mobile gantry cranes
lift them onto tracked dollies where they are safed and undergo their
first washing.

The casings are then taken to the SRBDF for disassembly into their
four main segments: two aft skirt and two forward skirt assemblies.
The main casing segments undergo further cleaning, after which they
are placed on railroad cars and shipped to the manufacturing plant in
Utah where they undergo final refurbishment and are again loaded with
propellant.

Meanwhile, the nose cone frustums and parachutes are processed at
the Parachute Refurbishment Facility in the KSC Industrial Area.

Parachute Refurbishment . The SRB Parachute Refurbishment Facility
(PRF) was originally built to process the parachutes used in the
Gemini manned space program and was modified for the Shuttle program.

The SRB parachutes are taken to the PRF for refurbishment on the
reels from the recovery vessels. The PRF also receives and stores
new parachutes and hardware for the SRBs.

Specific procedures for refurbishment of the SRB parachutes include
untangling the lines, and hanging them on an overhead monorail and
automatically washing and drying them. When this is completed, and
final inspections are conducted, the parachutes are folded on
64-ft.-long tables and stored in canisters for eventual reuse.

The Rules for Korean Chess
by Roleigh Martin
Copyright 1995
All Rights Reserved
2-16-95

INTRO: TO THE READER

My wife is Chinese and after playing Chinese Chess and falling in
love with the game, I learned about Korean Chess which is
virtually identical in board and piece lay-out but different in
move-rules. There is very little English literature on Korean
Chess–I’ve found 2 chapters in English on the game. If anyone
reading this can verify–or correct me if not–if I have the
complete rules to Korean Chess. Please reply if I have made any
mistakes or if you know that my rules are correct and complete.

I also wish to find out if there is any other software: public
domain, freeware, shareware, or commercial ware on Korean Chess
for MS-DOS computers. I know about JANGKI.ZIP. Can you please
inform me of any such software and how I may obtain it (BBS phone
numbers, FTP site names/directory/filename, or ordering address)?
Thanks!

Last, is there any internet mailing list groups on Korean Chess?
Is there any English language books or magazines on Korean Chess?
Thanks again!

DISTRIBUTION POLICY

This document is copyrighted. It can be distributed
electronically for non-commercial use as long as nothing is
altered in this document. I am working on a book on Chinese and
Korean Chess and intend to build upon this document for the
chapter on Korean Chess.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to Young Won, Compuserve ID 75541,2100 for his FLEFO forum
message who confirmed this document with his message “It has been
10 years since I have played my last Korean Chess game. I
briefly read the rules you posted (not line-by-line, though), and
they seem to be in line with what I remember.” In addition, he
provided the Korean names and meanings of each piece which I’ve
incorporated in this updated version of this document.

Thanks to J. Kim of HANAnet Operating Center (KTRC) (Internet
address: jskim1@soback.hana.nm.kr) who pointed me to a public
domain Korean Chess game, JANGKI.ZIP (Jang-gi V1.0, 1991.1.26) by
Hak Jong Lee of Daejon, Korea, from kids.kotel.co.kr. There is a
tiny README file but no copyright or distribution restrictions
documented with the ZIP file–hence by inference it is in the
public domain. (My FTP program could not access this using this
hostname, but J. Kim informed me correctly of it’s IP address:
128.134.2.51.) This file is in the directory, /pub/games. I got
this feedback via the USENET group, soc.culture.korean.

JANGKI is a great DOS-based Korean Chess game. It supports CGA
through VGA and works on a HP100/200 palmtop (but not under HP’s
System Manager; one must terminate that program and at the DOS
level, play the game). To run the program, at the DOS prompt,
move to the directory where you have installed these files and
type: JT and press ENTER.

This program (JT.EXE) is quite nice as it allows human to play
human or against the computer.

BACKGROUND COMMENTARY & RESOURCE

Korean Chess can be played with a Chinese Chess Set — same
pieces and board — but different rules. Actually quite fun!
Very few Chinese people know this game — if you find yourself
loosing to Chinese friends in Chinese Chess, play them a game of
Korean Chess — you might win!

The below resource is still in print and has an entire chapter on
Korean Chess — with rules, commentary and a sample game, on
Korean Chess.

The shipping and handling fee is $3.00. Send check for $12.95
(if you live in the USA) and order to Mail Order Department,
Dover Publications, 180 Varick Street, New York, NY 10014.

TITLE: Korean Games: With Notes on the Corresponding
Games of China & Japan
AUTHOR: Culin, Stewart
SERIES: Puzzles Ser.
PUBLISHER: Dover PUBLICATION DATE: 02/1991 (910201)
EDITION: Repr. of 1895 ed. NO. OF PAGES: 256p.
LCCN: N/A
BINDING: pap. – $9.95
ISBN: 0-486-26593-5
VOLUME(S): N/A
ORDER NO.: N/A
IMPRINT: N/A
STATUS IN FILE: New (91-04)
NOTE(S): Illustrated
SUBFILE: PB (Paperbound Books in Print)

The below resource is out of print and also has an entire chapter
on Korean Chess — with rules, commentary and a sample game, on
Korean Chess.

TITLE: Chess Variations: Ancient, Regional & Modern
AUTHOR: Gollon, John E.
PUBLISHER: C E Tuttle PUBLICATION DATE: 1973 (730101)
BINDING: pap. – $6.25
ISBN: 0-8048-1122-9
STATUS: Out of print (11-90)

Your library should be able to get the above through interlibrary
loan. Also, I have been suggested to try (but did not, as the
library succeeded): Howard Frisch, New and Antiguarian Books, Box
128, Village Station, New York City, NY 10014. The library
actually got me the hard cover book, which was published in 1968.
Instead of an ISBN number, it had only a Library of Congress
Catalog Card Number, No. 68-11975.

NAMING CONVENTION

Korean Chess derives, historically, from Chinese Chess. Since
the pieces in Chinese Chess have been given official English
names by the international Chinese Chess Association, I will use
the same English names for the Korean Chess pieces.

BOARD LAYOUT

The pieces are placed on the board gridlines not inside the
squares as in Western Chess. The board has 9 columns (also
called files or aisles) and 10 rows. The 9 columns are labeled
A-I. The 10 rows are labeled 0-9.

Left to right on the rear row, the pieces are called:

Rook, Knight, Bishop, Guard, [empty], Guard, Bishop, Knight, Rook
(r) (n) (b) (g) (g) (b) (n) (r)

Note: the Knight and Bishop can, as a setup option (not a move),
be transposed on either or both sides or neither side. (The game
JANGKI calls this a Pozin change and the default setup shown is
to have the bottom side’s righthand Bishop and Knight transposed
and the top side’s lefthand Bishop and Knight transposed.)

The second row only initially holds the king, abbreviated as (k),
in the center of the row.

The third row only initially holds the two cannons, abbreviated
as (c), each cannon being in the 2nd column from the edge.

The fourth row only initially holds the five pawns, abbreviated
as (p), starting with a pawn on each edge column and then every
OTHER column.

The initial board looks like the below (remember the knight and
bishop can be transposed as a setup option). If you transpose
the knight and bishop to just one side of the lineup, then the
four pieces (your 2 knights and 2 bishops) can theoretically hit
every spot on the board (not each piece but together the 4 pieces
can “hit” every spot on the board granted enough moves are made).
This setup transposition option doesn’t count as a move.

In real life, the colors of the two pieces are either Black and
Red, Green and Red, or Blue and Red.

(FIG 1: Knight and Bishop are not transposed.)

9 [r][n][b][g]-+-[g][b][n][r]
. | | | | |/ | | | |
8 +–+–+–+-[k]-+–+–+–+ Note: the pieces are put
. | | | | /| | | | | down on the gridpoints of
7 +-[c]-+–+–+–+–+-[c]-+ board — not inside the
. | | | | | | | | | squares as in Western Chess.
6 [p]-+-[p]-+-[p]-+-[p]-+-[p]
. | | | | | | | | |
5 +–+–+–+–+–+–+–+–+
. | | | | | | | | |
4 +–+–+–+–+–+–+–+–+
. | | | | | | | | |
3 (P)-+-(P)-+-(P)-+-(P)-+-(P)
. | | | | | | | | |
2 +-(C)-+–+–+–+–+-(C)-+
. | | | | |/ | | | |
1 +–+–+–+-[K]-+–+–+–+
. | | | | /| | | | |
0 (R)(N)(B)(G)-+-(G)(B)(N)(R)
. A B C D E F G H I

(FIG 2: One Knight and Bishop are transposed — this is the
default setup shown in the JANGKI software version of Korean
Chess; one is allowed to change this setup, but this is the
default setup.)

9 [r][n][b][g]-+-[g][n][b][r]
. | | | | |/ | | | |
8 +–+–+–+-[k]-+–+–+–+
. | | | | /| | | | |
7 +-[c]-+–+–+–+–+-[c]-+
. | | | | | | | | |
6 [p]-+-[p]-+-[p]-+-[p]-+-[p]
. | | | | | | | | |
5 +–+–+–+–+–+–+–+–+ Note:
. | | | | | | | | | <-This row is the "river"
4 +–+–+–+–+–+–+–+–+ in Chinese Chess and on
. | | | | | | | | | a Chinese Chess board,
3 (P)-+-(P)-+-(P)-+-(P)-+-(P) the middle 7 vertical
. | | | | | | | | | lines of this single row
2 +-(C)-+–+–+–+–+-(C)-+ are not painted on a
. | | | | |/ | | | | Chinese Chess board.
1 +–+–+–+-[K]-+–+–+–+
. | | | | /| | | | |
0 (R)(N)(B)(G)-+-(G)(N)(B)(R)
. A B C D E F G H I

I do not know the answer to the inevitable question: "If your
opponent transposes the knight and bishop on his left side, do
you normally transpose your bishop and knight on your right side
or left side? (I know it is legal to do either, neither or both;
but I am asking this from a sound strategy basis.)" I assume one
would transpose on the same aisle as the opponent, as that is how
the software program, JANGKI defaults to doing–even though the
user has the choice to do otherwise.

On the board are two fortresses (also called castles) which is a
3×3 grid in the center of the 1st 3 rows of both sides, in which
the king and his two guards must remain–they can not leave the
fortress–however, as will be explained below, the king can
perform a check against the other king from within the fortress.
Inside the fortress, there are diagonal lines that form a big "X"
inside the fortress.

On a Chinese Chess Board, there is a river that "exists" in the
middle row of the board; it does not exist in Korean Chess. If
one plays Korean Chess with a Chinese Chess board, one ignores
the "river" of the Chinese Chess board. In both Korean and
Chinese Chess, one has to move a full step to move across the
center row, regardless of whether it's called a "river" or not
(as in Korean Chess). Bottom line: in Korean Chess and Chinese
Chess, there are 10 rows. In Chinese Chess, moving from the 5th
to the 6th row is "moving across the river" where the pawns gain
the power to move one step sideways–and where the Bishops can
not move across. In Korean Chess, the pawns can move sideways
one step immediately and the Bishops can move anywhere on the
board that is legal for a given move.

Actually, the real Korean Chess set uses 8-sided pieces not round
pieces as in Chinese Chess. Also not all the pieces are the same
diameter as they are in Chinese Chess. The red pieces are 100%
identical but the blue have four pieces that use brush/script
style Chinese calligraphy and the pieces are difficult to
translate — I had to ask a Korean shopper in the Korean Grocery
store that I found the set at to identify the blue pieces. (My
Chinese Chess friends recognize these four different charactered
Blue pieces.) The board doesn't have a blank (no vertical lines)
river across the middle of the board as in Chinese Chess —
that's because there is no promotion or barrier concept in Korean
Chess as there is in Chinese Chess. Again, you can play Korean
and/or Chinese Chess with either country's pieces/board. One
thing nice, the Korean Grocery store had the pieces for only $4
and a nice wooden board for only $10.

Each piece is inscribed with a corresponding Chinese character.
However, on the King pieces, "Han" is inscribed on the red team,
and "Cho" is described on the blue (or green) team. Han and Cho
are names of two dynasties (or kingdoms) that were at war with
each other. (Note: "Han" and "Cho" is not what you call the
individual King pieces — these names refer to the "team names"
–the actual King piece names are shown below.)

I do not know the OFFICIAL conventional English spellings of the
Korean names for these pieces. Below I redescribe these pieces
per their Chinese names as well as the Korean spellings I've been
given by one Korean Chess player who has not played in 10 years
(see Acknowledgement section above).

QUESTION TO ANY EXPERIENCED KOREAN CHESS PLAYER:
Can anyone in this group provide me with confirmation or
correction of the below Korean names as they are spelled out in
English? Thanks! In particular, are the Korean names for the
Red and Blue King correct or should they be transposed (if so,
the Korean Jang would be very close to the Pinyin Jiang).

CANTO-
COORDINATES COLOR ENGLISH PINYIN NESE KOREAN
A0,I0,A9,I9 both Rook Ju Kui Cha or Tcha
B0,H0,B9,H9 both Knight Ma Ma Ma
C0,G0 Red Bishop Xiang Sheung Sang or Syang
C9,G9 Blue Bishop Xiang Cheung Sang or Syang
D0,F0,D9,F9 both Guard Shi See Sa
E1 Red King Shuai Sui Jang*
E8 Blue King Jiang Cheung Wang*
B2,H2,B7,H7 both Cannon Pao Pow Po or Hpo
A3,C3,E3,G3,I3 Red Pawn Bing Ping Byung or Pyeng**
A6,C6,E6,G6,I6 Blue Pawn Zu Tsut Jol or Tjol**

Note: the Korean names first spelled out are those obtained from
Korean Chess player whom I've corresponded with on Compuserve,
Young Won. The two chapters on Korean Chess, cited above,
provide the "or…" variation. For the King (*), they provide
two alternate names, neither depicting color specific names.
Koung or Tyang is what John Gollon provides; Tjyang or Koung is
what Stewart Culin provides. The Koung, Culin, explains is the
generic term for both–as it is similarly pronounced in Chinese
Chess by the Cantonese–meaning "general." For the Pawn (**),
Culin provides the Pyeng to be the Red, and Tjol to be the Blue.
Gollon provides the same two spellings but does not tie them to a
color.

Sometimes you'll hear Chinese Chess players translate the chess
pieces to different English names — the ones above are the
"official" English names — the ones below are others you might
hear and they are presented here for you to maintain
understanding in real life play:

OFFICIAL
ENGLISH ALTERNATE ENGLISH NAMES GIVEN THESE PIECES
Rook Car Chariot Tank
Knight Horse
Bishop Prime Minister Elephant Minister
Guard Counsellor Advisor
King General Emperor
Cannon Catapult
Pawn Soldier Foot Soldier

TRANSLATION TIDBITS

The Arabic name for "Chariot" is pronounced "Rook." The Chinese
symbol for Chariot is now used for the symbol for a car.

In the traditional Chinese Character for the Knight, the "Ma" —
which means "horse, you'll note the four depicted legs in the red
character (the pieces in real life are like Checkers but with the
Chinese character written on top of the piece) — these are the
horse's legs.

The historical reason the pieces are depicted differently for
both sides (although modern sets use the same depiction for the
Rook, Knight and sometimes the Cannon), is that players could
tell whose piece was whose even if the colors wore out. For
instance, Red has as it's bishop the Chinese Character for Prime
Minister, while Blue (or Green or Black) has as it's bishop the
Chinese Character for Elephant. They both have identical powers
however.

THE OBJECT OF THE GAME

The object of the game is identical to Western and Chinese Chess:
to checkmate the enemy king–that is, to place the enemy king in
a position of entrapment from which it can not save itself. A
stalemate is possible where neither side recognizes that neither
side can win by checkmate.

THE PIECE MOVEMENT RULES

1. The rook moves identical to the Western Chess and Chinese
Chess rook, with one exception:

a. for movement, it can move as far horizontally or
vertically as it has clear passage to move. The movement
for one move must be that of one single straight line.

b. in addition, for movement, the rook can move as far down
a fortress single diagonal line as long as there is clear
passage and the movement remains that of a single
straight line (this means the starting position has to be
in one of the corners or the center of the fortress).

c. for capture, the rook during it's normal movement, can
take any enemy piece that it first bumps into (there must
not be any intervening same-side piece).

2. The knight ends up moving identically to the western knight,
and it moves identical to the Chinese Chess knight. The
knight however must make its move by first moving one step
vertically or horizontally and then one outward diagonal step
and in this movement, there must be clear passage. Thus, the
initial two places that the knight at B0 can move to are A2
or C2. It can not initially move to D1 because the Bishop at
C0 is in the way.

3. The bishop, unlike its Chinese Chess "cousin", is like a
giant knight. It moves 3 positions away from itself: first
by going one step horizontally or vertically and then TWO
outward diagonal steps and there must be clear passage. Thus
in Figure 2 above, the Bishop at C0 can not move as it is
blocked, but it does protect the center Pawn. The Bishop at
H0 can move to F3.

As mentioned above, unlike Chinese Chess, the Bishop is not
only a defensive piece, it can move onto the enemy's side of
the board and be an offensive piece (as is true for both
Chinese and Korean Chess for all other pieces but the King
and Guards).

(For the curious, the Chinese Chess Bishop is a defensive
piece, and can only move two diagonal places at a time (not
any more nor less; and the passage must be clear) and the
Chinese Chess Bishop can not cross the "river"–it must stay
within the 1st 4 rows of it's home side.)

4. The Guard and King move identical to each other. They are
both limited to the center 3×3 fortress that resides in the
1st 3 rows of one's home side. Each piece can only move 1
step down any painted straight line whether or not the line
is a vertical, horizontal, or diagonal line. This is
different than Chinese Chess wherein the Guard can only move
diagonally and the King can only move horizontally or
vertically.

5. The cannon, with several restrictions named below, moves and
captures by making one jump during a single straight line
move. The straight line move can be down a single vertical
line, a single horizontal line, or a single diagonal line in
either fortress (provided the cannon's starting position is
on a fortress border gridpoint).

Note: a fortress canon diagonal move can't start from the
dead center of the fortress but a canon can land in the
fortress dead center from a normal vertical or horizontal
move or jump. But once inside the center of the fortress, the
canon can make a move or jump away by going horizontally or
vertically.

The canon, when it moves, has to jump over a single non-canon
piece, regardless whether the jumped-over piece belongs to
his side or the enemy side. When making a move (not a
capture), the canon can land on any empty gridpoint that
exists on the other side of the jumped-over piece. That
landed-onto (previously) empty gridpoint can be immediately
on the other side of the jumped-over piece or several
gridpoints beyond that jumped-over piece.

The canon, when it captures, has to jump as in a normal move,
but instead of landing onto an empty gridpoint, it has to
land onto an enemy piece that it encounters in, what would
otherwise be a normal jump-type-move. The jumped-over piece
is not captured–it is that second piece encountered in the
jump that is captured. Remember, the 1st piece can be of
either color; the 2nd piece–that is jumped-onto (not over)
has to be that of the enemy.

The cannon can't jump over a cannon (either color).

The cannon can't capture a cannon.

The cannon can not make the first move in a game (unlike
Chinese Chess).

Note: the Korean canon is very different than the Chinese
Chess canon wherein the Chinese Chess canon moves like a rook
but jumps like a Korean Chess canon (but unlike the Korean
canon, the Chinese Chess canon can jump over or jump onto
another canon).

6. The pawn moves the same way it captures: it can move either
one step forward or one step sideways. It can never move
backward. It can move forward down a diagonal line in the
enemy's fortress. If during that one step move, it moves onto
an enemy's occupied, position, it is a capture of that enemy
piece.

If the pawn makes it to the last row, it can only move
sideways then.

For the curious, the Chinese Chess pawn is different; it
can't move sideways until after getting to it's 6th row
(called after crossing the river) and it can't move down the
diagonal line in the enemy's fortress.

7. Special end game notes:

a. Neither side ordinarily want to allow the two kings to
face each other naked (in Chinese Chess but not Korean
Chess, the side that causes this to happens loses the
game). Facing each other "naked," means that there are
no intervening chess pieces.

If you cause this to happen in Korean Chess, you are
placing the other King in check in a desparate last-
chance move on your part for you irreversably foresake
the right to checkmate the other side–you are hoping for
a stalemate, which would be the case if the other side
can not get out of that desparate check.

This is the case even if the game continues for many
moves and even if otherwise the game could have gone into
a good checkmate, the side that initially caused the two
kings to be naked can at best only obtain a stalemate.

I call this (I do not claim originality though) the
"Kings Naked Rule."

b. Gollon adds the rule (page 159, hardbound edition) that
"If in mating, the mating piece is defended by only the
allied 'king'–i.e., if the piece is on an open file
occupied by its 'king' and therefore cannot be captured
by the checked king because of the above rules, the game
is only drawn."

This is the different in Chinese Chess; for there one
frequently will use one's King to protect a piece who is
making check and who otherwise would be captured by the
King being checked–in Chinese Chess, that is considered
successful checkmate–it is a win, not a draw.

c. Unlike Chinese Chess, if you have no other move to make,
except to put your King in check or checkmate, you can
"pass." In other words, your King can stand still, if it
stays in safety and there are no other pieces it can move
at all (regardless if those other pieces would be
captured or not) and if it would otherwise (if a move had
to be made) cause the king to move into check or
checkmate. Gollon states that one declares his pass by
turning his King over, upside down, on the same spot.

8. As a reminder, the pawn, cannon, and rook get to treat the
diagonal lines in either fortress (except the pawn can only
get to the enemy fortress) as ordinary straight lines that
they can move on — except the pawn can only move to the side
or forward — but the pawn can move forward to the rear line
down the diagonal.

9. Unlike Chinese Chess, the double cannon lineup against a king
poses no immediate threat — the rear cannon can't jump over
the front cannon, remember. (In Chinese Chess, if the
farthest away canon from the enemy king is safe and if no
opponent's piece can intervene between the two canons, the
game is over if the King is unable to move sideways, which
can often be the case.)

[End of Document]

First, a quick explanation about why Ka band photo radar units are so
hard to pick up, then a few off the wall ways of avoiding them.

The main reason they are hard to detect is that they operate at a very
low power level, usually less than a half a milliwatt (compared to
an effective radiation power of a normal radar gun of up to 4 watts,
usually 80mw actual power, making them 1/160 as powerful). The second
part is that they are aimed at an angle across traffic (something like
37.5 degrees). The reason for this is twofold – first, it is hard to
detect the beam if it isn’t aimed down the lane of traffic at you. Second,
if it was aimed down the lane of traffic, the unit would be able to determine
the speed of a semi at up to something on the order of 1/4 mile, making a
3 x 5 snapshot of the highway scenery with a speck on the road-picture of
the oncoming truck. You have to pass “across” the beam to trigger the camera
so as to prevent highly reflective objects from triggering the camera too
soon. By the way, as to the cosine effect, the unit is set up at a
precise angle across the highway and the computer (if you want to call it
a computer) in the photo radar unit automatically compensates for the
difference.

Ways to get around photo radar:
1. They typically use infrared film at night – paint your license plate
with infrared-reflecting paint so as to make the F’s on your license plate
look like E’s, 3’s look like 8’s, etc. You get the picture (but hopefully
the photo radar unit won’t 🙂

2. Remove your license plate and put it in the windshield instead.

3. Another trick on the infrared film deal – turn on your defrosters.
It will make the usually see-through glass look like a red wall.

4. Bend your license plate almost in half – if you get pulled over for
having it like that, say that your friend must have gotten it caught on
one of those concrete blocks that they have in parking lots and bent it.

5. My favorite (for those with guts). Plant a small transmitter on the
Blazer or whatever that houses the photo radar unit. Have it send a pulse
out every second or so. Build a receiver that tells you when you are near
the transmitter – make it so it can be received about a mile away. Better
than a detector! It is sure to work! You can probably sell the receivers
and make a few bucks along the way…

6. Make a high-power transmitter that operates on the same frequency of
the photo radar unit. Drive by the unit while it is operating and blast
it with a few hundred watts of radiation, effectively frying the receiver’s
front end/detector circuitry, rendering the unit useless.

Any more ideas?!?!?!? Send mail – I’m interested in hearing how creative
the rest of you outlaws are….

— Jeff

+———————————————-+——————————+
| Jeff DePolo [depolo@eniac.seas.upenn.edu] | o The best things in life |
| => The University of Pennsylvania <= | come in six-packs. |
| Class of 1991 – Computer Science Engineering | o Life begins at 85 MPH. |
+———————————————-+ o It's not illegal if they |
| DISCLAIMER: Someone else used my account. | don't catch you. |
+———————————————-+——————————+

“J” WHY THINK?
Online Propaganda #1.23

A message from the Idea Management Corporation
An enterprise of the Ministry of the Public Mind.

STOP THINKING!
WHY BE BOTHERED?

THINKING IS DOWNRIGHT DIFFICULT! Let the “J party” do the hard
work for you. There is no reason why you should worry yourself
with thought when there are trained professionals waiting to do it
for you. You are not qualified to think, so stop struggling with
difficult questions. We have _all_ the answers for you, either on
file in out “J Database of Political and Philosophical Ideology
(TM),” or in our heads waiting to become a “J Custom Thought (TM)”
just for you!
As a free demonstration of how the “J party” can relieve you
of the burden of thought we will answer a few “difficult”
questions. These questions have confused even the greatest
independent minds of all time, causing frustration, anger,
insanity, and even art! However, with the “Principles of Jism” all
questions are simple! Just look at these:

Q: “Why do I exist?”
A: To serve the “J party” and the common good, and to follow
the “Principles of Jism.”

Q: “How can I make a difference in this world?”
A: By following the “Principles of Jism,” working hard, being
happy, and leaving the thinking to trained “J party”
professionals.

Q: “What do I want to do with my life?”
A: You want to serve the “J party” loyally and be happy at all
times.

Q: “How can I be a better person?”
A: By devoting your life unquestionably serving the “J party.”

Q: “Is there a God and an afterlife?”
A: Yes, God is a loyal “J party” member working in our
Ministry of Theological Resources, and the afterlife a
“J party” sanctioned state of being.

Q: How can I lead the good life?”
A: With “J” you will be able to acquire all the material
possessions, popularity and influence that we want. You
will also discover that members of the opposite sex will
look at you in a whole new light when you are a “Jist”

See how easy it is when you don’t have to think for yourself?
Our easy to understand and follow answers are the key to a life of
happiness without struggle. Eliminate indecision over courses of
action which result from your inability to answer difficult life
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Jism” show you the way out. The “J party” is _the_ Anarcho-Fascist
dada state for the _Information Anxiety Age_ we live in. With the
“Principles of Jism” you can thwart the powers-that-be in their
conspiracy to control you through the tyranny of independent
thought.

Thinking is a futile and often dangerous endeavor. Thinking
brings question. Question often results in depression,
dissatisfaction, and violence. Thinking also gives rise to foolish
and counterproductive questions such as “Do I really exist?, “Was
there a yesterday?”, “Is there a God?”, and “What color boxer-
shorts should I wear today?”. These are all irrelevant to the
common good. Few will benefit from the color of your underwear or
your religious/philosophical beliefs. In short, thinking subverts
the common good.

THE COMMON GOOD IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN YOU ARE!

What benefits most people will logically benefit you. If one
thinks only of one’s self, the end result will be disaster for all
concerned. The cause of this damaging individualism is short-
sighted, greedy, “free-thinking”! The more you think only of
yourself, the more you are hurting yourself.

INDIVIDUALISM IS BAD, IT SUBVERTS THE COMMON GOOD!
BE A PART OF THE WHOLE!
ROCK THE BOAT AND YOU WILL SINK WITH IT!

The more freedom you have the more dangerous you become to the
largest number of people, yourself included. Ultimate equality and
true liberty can be achieved only through recognition of the
insignificance of the individual and the common good!

* * JOIN THE “J PARTY” NOW! * *

Take the first step towards a happy, fulfilling life and join
now. Free yourself from the burden of free thought and work for
the common good as a loyal “Jist.” If you join the “J party” now
this is what you will receive for a $10.00 membership fee:

* “J party” member identification card
* “J party” Literature free for one year
* Permission to attend “J party” functions

Plus, you may also receive:

* A discount on the “J Manifesto” when it is published in late 1993
* Information on how to be appointed to a “J Party” Ministerial
position even if the usual nepotistic methods of appointment
are not available to you

If you are not already convinced that you want to join the “J
party” and live the life we truly want you to, free from the
worries of challenging the status-quo, then send for more
information immediately! Do not do yourself the disfavor of
denying us the opportunity to send you further proof of the wisdom
of the “Principle of Jism.” Please send $1.00 with your request to
cover printing and postage.

*****************************************************************
I WANT YOU TO THINK FOR ME!

NAME: ______________________________________________
ADDRESS: ___________________________________________
CITY: __________________________________ STATE: ____
COUNTRY: _____________________ POSTAL CODE: ________
AGE: _______ IQ: ________ SEX: ____ INCOME: ________
PHONE #: ___________________ S.S.#: ________________
MOTHER’S MAIDEN NAME: ______________________________
RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION: _____________________________
COLOR: ____________ HUE: ___________ TINT: _________
CREDIT CARD NUMBERS: ——————————-

[ ] I want to join the “J party” immediately. Send me my
membership materials. I have enclosed the $10
membership fee.

[ ] I don’t want to join now, but I don’t want to think for
myself, either. I have enclosed $1 for additional info.

Make checks or money orders payable to “The J party”
Send to: “J party” H.Q. East
ATTN: Ministry of Indoctrination
159 West St.
Lenox Ma 01240

If used in numbers, atomic bombs not only can nullify any nation’s military
effort, but can demolish its social and economic structure and prevent their
re-establishment for long periods of time. With such weapons, especially if
employed in conjunction with other weapons of mass destruction such as
pathogenic bacteria, it is quite possible to depopulate vast areas of the
earth’s surface, leaving only vestigal remnants of man’s material works.

Report of the Joint Chiefs of Staff,
Operations Crossroads, June 30, 1947.

**********************************************************************
* HELLO FRIENDS! *
* NOW I HOLD SOME EASY JAPANESE LESSON! *
* *
* KON NICHIWA………..HELLO *
* GOKIGEN IKAGA………HOW ARE YOU *
* OHAYOU GOZAIMASU……GOOD MORNING *
* KONBANWA…………..GOOD EVENING *
* OYASUMI NASAI………GOOD NIGHT *
* SAYOUNARA………….GOOD BYE *
* + DOUMO ……………. THANKS *
* ARIGATOU (GOZAIMASU)..THANK YOU (VERY MUCH) *
* DOUZO……………..PLEASE *
* GOMEN NASAI………..EXCUSE ME *
* SHITSUREI SHIMASHITA..I’M SOORY *
* *
* HAI……YES IIE……NO *
* WATASHI..I ANATA….YOU *
* KARE…..HE KANOJO…SHE *
* WATASHI TACHI..WE ANATA TACHI..YOU *
* KARERA…THEY *
* *
* ICHI…1 NI……2 SAN…..3 SHI….4 GO…5 *
* ROKU…6 SHICHI..7 HACHI…8 KYU…9 JU…10 *
* JU ICHI….11 NIJU….20 SANJU ICHI….31 *
* HYAKU….100 HYAKU ICHI…101 HYAKU NIJU SAN…123 *
* *
* WATASHI WA NIHONGO GA HANASE MASU…I CAN SPEAK JAPANESE. *
* WATASHI WA NIHONGO GA HANASE MASEN..I CAN’T SPEAK JAPANESE. *
* WATASHI NO NAMAE WA *** DESU …….MY NAME IS ***. *
* WATASHI WA ** SAI DESU…………..I AM ** YEARS OLD. *
* *
* WATASHIWA ANATA WO AISHITEIMASU…I LOVE YOU. (Formal) *
* + AISHITERU…………………….I LOVE YOU. (Informal) *
* WATASHIWA ANATA GA SUKIDESU…….I LIKE YOU. (Formal) *
* + SUKIDAYO …………………….I LIKE YOU. (Informal) *
* + SUKIMONO ……………………..MANIAC. *
* + CHINCHIN …………………….. PENIS *
* ONNA NO KO ……………………GIRL *
* + Words added by Toru Kashima (COKASHI@WEIZMANN) *
* IF YOU CAN MASTER THIS LESSON *
* THEN YOU CAN SPEAK JAPANESE ?! *
* PLEASE COME TO JAPAN !!!!! *
* *
**********************************************************************
* SOME JAPANESE LANGUAGE *
* TYPED BY SHIGERU SATOH (SATOH@JPNSUT30) *
* GIVE ME ANY MAIL !!!!!! *
**********************************************************************

HEY, MAN, ARE YOU USING ONLY HALF YOUR BRAIN?

You’re pretty hip. We all know that.

You can throw an I CHING hexagram and intuit its meaning. You
know all about Hedonic Engineering and staying high. You’ve seen
through all the social games.

When it comes to the neurosomatic circuit of the brain, and
body wisdom, you’re a champ. And everybody knows it.

But what about those mysterious left-hemisphere brain
functions? Would’nt you like to learn the secrets of the West,
previously known only to the adepts at the esoteric Princeton
Institute for Advanced Studies? Stranges arts like the Equation,
which predicts things before they happen, or the Syllogism, which
allows you to test an argument for internal validity? Or
would’nt you like to know how the mysterious Stereo works, or
what keeps planes from falling out of the sky?

Imagine trying to live with one eye, or one lung, or one
testicle.

Is’nt it equally a handicap to use only half your brain?

Subscribe to SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

(__)
(oo)
/——-/
/ : ::
* ::—-::
^^ ^^

SIR, ARE YOU USING ONLY HALF YOUR BRAIN?

You’re pretty smart. We all know that.

You know all about partial differential equations, computer
programming, cost analysis, flow charts and vectors. If it can
be put into an equation, expressed in human language, or recorded
on a graph, you can handle it.

When it comes to the semantic circuit of the brain and precise
manipulations of symbol systems, you’re a champ. Any everybody
knows it.

But what about those mysterious right-hemisphere brain
functions? Intuition? Synergetic apprehension of whole systems?
Esthetics and ESP?

Imagine trying to live with one eye, or one lung, or one
testicle.
Isn’t it equally a handicap to use only half your brain?

“Specialization is for insects.”
— Robert A. Heinlein

“I once knew a man who was an ear, a magnificent ear, the
greatest ear in Europe. But that was all he was:an ear.”
— Nietzsche on Wagner

(__)
(oo)
/——-/
/ : ::
* ::—-::
^^ ^^

============================================================
ESTIMATED IQ’S OF FAMOUS PEOPLE IN HISTORY 1450-1850
============================================================
The following list appears in the Book of Lists,
Walleninsky, Wallace and Wallace, 1977, William Morrow &
Co., and is originally from a study which appears in:
“Genetic Study of Genius” Vol. 2, by Catherine Morse Cox,
copyright 1926 Stanford Press. The IQ’s are estimated based
upon various analytical elements, including performance
before the age of 17. Presumably, these are on the Stanford-
Binet scale.
============================================================
1. John Stuart Mill (Philosopher, economist) 190
2. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (German poet) 185
3. Thomas Chatterton 170
4. Voltaire (Author, philosopher) 170
5. George Sand (the only woman on the list; author) 150
6. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (Composer) 150
7. Lord Byron (English poet) 150
8. Thomas Jefferson (President, statesman, author) 145
9. Benjamin Franklin (Writer, statesman, inventor) 145
10. Charles Dickens (English writer) 145
11. Galileo (Astronomer) 145
12. Napoleon Bonaparte (Military strategist, conqueror)140
13. Richard Wagner (Composer) 135
14. Charles Darwin (Scientist: theory of Evolution) 135
15. Ludwig von Beethoven (Composer) 135
16. Leonardo da Vinci (Artist, inventor) 135
17. Honore de Balzac (Writer) 130
18. Sir Isaac Newton (Mathematician, scientist) 130
19. Baruch Spinoza (Philosopher) 130
(Note that those below this level would likely be
below the 98th percentile required for MENSA)
20. George Washington (Statesman, militarist,President)125
21. Abraham Lincoln (President, lawyer) 125
22. Robert Blake (British admiral, writer) 125
23. Johann Sebastian Bach (Composer) 125
24. Josef Haydn (Composer) 120
25. Hernando Cortes (conqueror of Mexico) 115
26. Emmanual Swedenborg (Swedish religious writer) 115
27. Martin Luther (Religious reformer) 115
28. Rembrandt van Rindt (Dutch Painter) 110
29. Copernicus (Astronomer) 105
30. Cervantes (Writer: Don Quixote) 105
==========================================================
Surprised? So were we at the Greater Phoenix Mensa BBS,
(602) 840 4865 (300/1200/2400 N81), for which this computer
file has been generated. Thanks to Kate Searle for bringing
this list to my attention. — Bob Hirschfeld, SYSOP.
==========================================================

X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X

Another file downloaded from: NIRVANAnet(tm)

& the Temple of the Screaming Electron Jeff Hunter 510-935-5845
Rat Head Ratsnatcher 510-524-3649
Burn This Flag Zardoz 408-363-9766
realitycheck Poindexter Fortran 415-567-7043
Lies Unlimited Mick Freen 415-583-4102

Specializing in conversations, obscure information, high explosives,
arcane knowledge, political extremism, diversive sexuality,
insane speculation, and wild rumours. ALL-TEXT BBS SYSTEMS.

Full access for first-time callers. We don’t want to know who you are,
where you live, or what your phone number is. We are not Big Brother.

“Raw Data for Raw Nerves”

X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X

——————————————————————————
FILE CONTAINED: INVENT.TXT
ACTUAL TOPIC: Inventions of the early nineteenth century.
AUTHOR AND RESEARCHER: Big Brother @ The Works (617) 861-8976
——————————————————————————
This file was originally researched and typed by Big Brother. All material
used in the file is original and unplagerized, so these files are SAFE to
use AS-IS with no modifications other than specifics to cover the actual
required topic for school. Because school can be a BITCH, these files
have been prepared to aide you in your research, and are not intended to be
actually turned in AS-IS, but many of you will turn them in since they are
worry free files… don’t fuck up your life, study and get good grades, then
get a good job, make some money, marry someone you love, and live happily
ever after… …because, after all – Big Brother is Watching You!
——————————————————————————

Big Brother’s Guide to School

The Dreaded Reports

actual examples………..

START OF FILE
——————————————————————————

INVENTIONS OF THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY

The art of inventing has been around since remedies have

been needed and solutions have been required to make our

lives easier and more enjoyable. From the time our

forefathers colonized the shores of a new land, up till the

time of the modern day super-conductor: people have created

devices and made discoveries on our behalf to make life

easier for everyone.

Before the early nineteenth century communications

were inadequate. The limitations of our hearing meant that

distant events were known long after they had occurred.

Systems of communication existed which were quicker then the

speed of a messenger – smoke signals, fires lit on hills,

signalling flags. But these methods could only be used for

communicating in code with pre-established sayings rather

than out-right communication. These methods also required

certain meteorological or geographical conditions in order to

function properly.

In the nineteenth century conditions were present that

made the need for new forms of communications indispensable.

Industrial society needed a method of communicating

information quickly, safely and accurately. Artist-inventor

Samuel F.B. Morse holds credit for devising American’s first

commercially successful electromagnetic telegraph (patented

in January 1836). The telegraph was a device used to

electrically send signals over a wire for long distances

allowing an established communication link to be made from

one city to another. (And everything in-between.) The basic

principle of the telegraph was the opening and closing of an

electrical circuit supplied by a battery: the variations of

the current in the electromagnet would attract or repel a

small arm connected to a pencil which would trace zigzag

signs onto a strip of paper running under the arm at a

constant speed. This early plan didn’t offer great practical

possibilities, mainly because the batteries then available

could not produce a current strong enough to push the signal

great distances.

As an artist and sculptor, Morse had the personal

qualities to succeed as inventor of the telegraph:

intelligence, persistence, and a willingness to learn. What

he lacked was: knowledge of recent scientific developments,

adequate funds, mechanical ability, and political influence.

Like all successful inventors of the nineteenth century,

Morse exploited his strengths and worked on his weaknesses.

Morse used Professor Leonard D. Gale’s suggestions of

improving both his battery and electromagnet by following the

suggestions of Joseph Henry. Together they incorporated

Henry’s suggestions and stepped up the distance they could

send messages from fifty feet to ten miles. This invention,

no less important than the telegraph itself, was the so-

called relay system, widely used today for automatic controls

and adjustments. Morse introduced a series of electromagnets

along the line, each of which opened and shut the switch of a

successive electric circuit, supplied by it’s own battery.

At the same time Morse improved the transmitting and

receiving devices and perfected the well-know signalling

system based on dots and dashes, which is still in use today.

The first telegraph line, connecting Baltimore to New

York, was inaugurated in 1844. Before this however, on May

24th, 1843 wires were strung between Washington and Baltimore

where Morse sent the first message from the Supreme Court

room in Washington to Alfred Vail, Morse’s assistant who was

in Baltimore at a railroad depot (41 miles away): “What hath

God wrought?”

On May 29th, 1844 word flashed by wire from the

democratic convention in Baltimore that James K. Polk had

been nominated for the Presidency. People were fascinated by

the “Magic key” and it was decided that the telegraph would

be used for now to report congressional doings.

By 1848 every state east of the Mississippi except

Florida was served be the telegraph; by the end of the civil

war more than 200,000 miles of line were used for business

communications and personal messages as well as news of

battles, politics, and sports results. The telegraph was a

success. Samuel F. B. Morse died in 1872.

While communications were important in the nineteenth

century, there were some other inventions that made life a

little easier. In April of 1849, Walter Hunt patented his

invention which to this day we probably wouldn’t get by

without. Hunt invented the safety pin, patented it, and then

without hesitation sold all rights to the pin for $400. In

1846, Elias Howe invented the sewing machine which “was

becoming a fixture in the homes of [all] American newlyweds.”

Soon to be followed by industry turning it’s attention to the

home by producing labor-saving appliances – novelties that

soon became necessities.

Charles Goodyear, one of the nineteenth century’s

greatest inventors and father of today’s vast rubber industry

discovered vulcanization, the process that toughens rubber

and rids it of stickiness, in January of 1839.

The riddle of rubber – how to prevent the stuff from

becoming sticky in the summer, brittle in the winter and

horrid-smelling in between. After years of anguish, Goodyear

discovered quite by accident that by adding sulphur to raw

rubber and heating the material from four to six hours at

about 270 degrees F. the rubber would be cured by the sulphur

resulting in increased strength and stiffness while

preserving its flexibility.

After spending many hundreds of hours, Goodyear, in his

make-shift lab adding one substance after another to rid the

rubber of it’s natural stickiness using every ingredient he

could get his hands on to put into the rubber mixture, (He

used salt, paper, talcum powder, anything…) one afternoon

when all else had failed, Goodyear dropped by accident a

mixture of sulphur and rubber onto his hot stovetop. Goodyear

looked at the blob in disbelief because it didn’t melt as

“gum elastic” always had in the past. Instead, it solidified

and “[the rubber] charred like leather”.

Before Goodyear’s discovery, rubber’s bad qualities

permitted few uses. French savants had studied the new

substance for waterproof qualities; someone had found that

the gray gum rubbed out pencil marks on paper, and thus the

word “rubber” was born.

By 1839 British manufacturers had learned a few other

uses for uncured rubber. Charles Macintosh, a chemist,

patented in 1823 a fabric that included a thin layer of

rubber. From this he made raincoats that in England, the

climate helped satisfy purchasers. In American winters they

hardened like armor, in American summers it they softened

like taffy.

Eldest son of Amasa Goodyear, a New Haven merchant and

sometimes inventor, Charles helped his father sell a

“Patented Spring Steel Hay and Manure Fork” invented by his

father. Amasa manufactured the first pearl buttons made in

America and metal buttons that U.S. soldiers wore in the war

of 1812.

Goodyear foresaw many products – rubber gloves, toys,

conveyor belts, watertight seals, water-filled rubber

pillows, balloons, printing rollers, and rubber bands were

among some of the brainstorms he would jot down, one after

the other into his notebook.

Also envisioned were rubber banknotes, musical

instruments, flags, jewelry, “imitation buffalo-robes,” vanes

or “sails” for windmills, and ship’s sails, even complete

ships. While the automobile tire did escape his imagination,

it was not without reason – the auto hadn’t been invented

yet!

From barbed wire to keep our railways safe, to revolvers

to keep our country safe, the nineteenth century marked a big

boom in inventive history. Soon following all of these

inventions, the civil war became a full blown testing field

for all these inventions. Whether it was the coin operated

hairbrush meant for public restrooms, or the automatic hat

tipper (for when women are near and your hands are occupied,)

the inventions of this time proved to be both interesting and

useful. Well, most of them.

Today, we still use a lot of the inventions of the early

nineteenth century, but technology is passing us by at a pace

we may not be ready for. Inventions are no longer just there

to make life easier, safer, more enjoyable, and more

entertaining, but they give us something to keep us occupied

in this never-ending quest for – “perfectness?”

Maybe in a hundred years someone will be looking back

through their history books, searching though the libraries

of the future and seeing our super-conductors, our computers,

our High Definition t.v.s, our Super VHS video recorders, and

our Digital Audio Tape players. Could they be saying “isn’t

that silly” just like the coin operated hairbrush, or the

combination food masher/rat and mouse trap (?) Time will

tell.

__________________________________________________________

Bibiliography:

Men Of Science and Invention
– Editors of American Heritage
Published American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc.
Harper & Row (c)1960

Those Inventive Americans
– Poduced by National Geographic Society Publications Div.
Published N.G.S
N.G.S. (c)1971

Big Brother
– The Works (617) 861-8976
Largest Text File Base (FBBS) Spam! Spam! Spam!
(c)1990 Homework Helper!

The Picture History of Inventions
– Umberto Eco & G.B. Zorzoli (Translated from italian by
Anthony Lawrence)
Malmillan Co., NY. (c)1963

Various photocopied charts and pictures from other
references were also used.

—————————————————————————–
Special thanks to Big Brother… since he did all of the actual work for you!
—————————————————————————–
END OF FILE

Last Updated: 19/9/1995

Introduction and Charter of the High Energy Weapons Archive

At the time of the Gulf War, Norman Schwarzkopf remarked:

“War is a profanity because, let’s face it, you’ve got two opposing sides
trying to settle their differences by killing as many of each other as
they can.”

Which brings us to nuclear weapons…

Since the first test at Alamogordo, our world governments have exploded
in total over 2000 of these devices at their bombing ranges (Lop Nor,
Kazhakstan, Nevada, Micronesia). They’ve done it in the air, on the ground,
below the ground, and in the water. The tests still go on today.

The purpose of this archive is to illuminate to the reader the effects
of these nasty devices, and to warn against their use.

At this time, although the threat of a nuclear world war has reduced,
there are other threats to our tentative peace which have emerged.
These involve regional conflicts, and the activities of terrorist parties
or nations. They involve issues such as plutonium smuggling, and the sale
of weapons technology (possibly clandestine) to militaristic nations.

Continued nuclear testing is also another problem. It reinforces the
position of the London Club nations, and gives incentive to the rest of
the world for removing their monopoly. In fact, this was China’s
justification for joining the Club. With Pakistan and North Korea’s incipient
entry, horizontal proliferation is a tangible threat. You can expect nations
involved in regional conflicts to back their threats up with a nuclear fist if
they have one. If you have a weapon and your survival is threatened, there is a
strong chance you will use it in defense, no matter the consequences. This was
the U.S. Government’s justification for the A-bombing of Japan. It saved the
lives of their soldiers. Little mention was made of Japanese
civilians (collateral damage).

The decision to bomb Japan was made in secret. This led directly to the arms
race we are currently involved in. Russia felt threatened, and embarked on
its own bomb program, eventually producing one in 1949. In turn, the Americans
felt threatened, and embarked on the thermonuclear program. This culminated in
the pivotal Mike test of 1952. Nuclear blackmail during the Korean War led
China to make a bomb. Public disclosure and discussion before Hiroshima would
have helped avoid the situation we are in today. Hence the need for an informed
and vigilant worldwide public.

My aim in setting up this archive is to shine a light on the shadowy world of
high energy weapons, particularly the thermonuclear kind. You will find here
brief notes describing the conceptual basis of nuclear weapons, the
experiences of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors, and graphics of nuclear
explosions. The conceptual notes are based on public domain references,
and do not contain technical specifications to weapon design. In other words,
there is no quantitative information. The notes are there to show where the
product particles of nuclear weapons come from, and how they can cause damage.
These include neutrons, X-rays, and the highly radioactive fission fragments
such as strontium-90 and cesium-137. A basic grasp of what goes on inside
a weapon is helpful in understanding issues like plutonium smuggling, and
the problems of a monitoring nuclear test ban.

I set up this archive because I saw the need for a collation of nuclear
material on the net. To make informed decisions one needs correct and relevant
knowledge. Equipped with these brief notes, and other material found in
the References, you can be more informed on the proliferation issue.

Please note that some of the material in the archive is pure assumption. To
support or deny some of the statements requires an extensive weapons testing
program. Please use the material as a guide only, and always check the factual
base of the material, no matter where it comes from.

Note on this Archive’s History

The HEW Archive was at Melbourne University, Australia for a year, until
it was closed down by enforcement of university regulations concerning
use of computing facilities. On its impending closure, however, Xgateway
Finland Ltd offered it a new home in Espoo, Finland, just outside Helsinki.

Note on the Archive Maintainer

Gary Au was born in 1971, Hong Kong, and is a naturalised Australian
citizen. He holds a BSc(Hons) in theoretical physics from Melbourne
University, Australia. He is currently submitting a PhD on theoretical
particle physics at the same institution.

Intelligence and Interrogation Processes
By: Master Of Impact and the Legion Of Hackers

INTRODUCTION:
=============

Doing what we do best always carries the risk of someone, somewhere, wanting
to hold you for questioning. In this article I hope to give those persons who
that are in use (and are in no ways happen to be all new), that can give you
the edge you need to come away “sin faulta”. In fact, these interrogation
practicies are used a lot by teachers, local police, the FBI and Secret Service
girlfriends, wives, parents, etc. to obtain information from you that you
probably don’t want to give out.

Interrogation is the art of questioning and examining a source in order to
obtain the maximum amount of useful information. The goal of any interrogation is to obtain useful and reliable information in a lawful manner and in a
minimum amount of time. The goal of any source is to deceive or hinder any
attempts of the interrogator to get information out of him.

This article will deal primarily with the principles, techniques, and
procedures of intelligence interrogation. By reading this article, one
who runs the risk of being interrogated can build countermeasures for common
interrogation techniques. This article has some paraphrased material from a
government interrogation manual but the majority of the information was from
personal experience and prior knowledge of the subject.

You cannot hope to defeat interrogation techniques unless you first know
what they are. The ones listed herein are the most commonly used. After reading
this article, you should be able to tell when you are being interrogated by
people, and what technique(s) they are using when you probably would not have
known before. Once you know what they are up to and how they are going to TRY
to accomplish it, YOU have the initiative!

INITIATIVE:
===========

Achieving and maintaining the initiative is essential to a successful
interrogation just as offense is the key to success in combat operations. The
initiative in any interrogation must rest with the interrogator throughout the
entire interrogation. He will have certain advantages at the beginning of an
interrogation which will enable him to grasp the initiative and assist in
maintaining the initiative throughout the interrogation.

The interrogator has a position of authority over you. You realize this
fact, and in some cases, believe that your future might well depend upon your
association with the interrogator. As in the case of police questioning,
“cooperate and we will go easy on you”. Like hell they will.

The interrogator knows the purpose of the interrogation; the source does
not necessarily know the exact reason, but can generally assume (especially
in the case of a computer hacker or phone phreak, which is what the term
“source” will be referring to, during this article) because he or she is most
usually conscious of horrible and nasty wrong-doings he or she may have been
responsible for. Unfortunately for the source, he is generally very much in
the dark about what’s happening to his life while it is, in fact, crumbling
around him (temporarily, anyway). This gives the source a not-so-illusionary
behavior pattern of the proverbial chicken who’s had its head chopped off.

Having gained the initial advantage which is quite an understatement,
seeing that, although the risks to the source during the perpetration of
a crime are quite obvious, the possible realistic results of being caught
aren’t quite as impressive while one is getting away with a crime than when
one’s home is invaded by the JC Penny-suit men wearing mirrored sunglasses,
the interrogator must strive to maintain the initiative applying appropriate
interrogation techniques through the exercise of self-control; by taking
advantage of the source’s weaknesses as they become apparent; and by
continuously displaying an attitude of confidence and self-assurance. The
interrogator, however, is ‘supposed’ to never take advantage of your weaknesses
to`tae extent that the interrogation involves threats, insults, torture
or exposure to unpleasant or inhumane treatment of any kind. Remember, the
keyword is supposed.

It is possible for the interrogator to lose the initiative during the
interrogation of a source. If this should occur, he will probably postpone the
interrogation and reassess the situation. If the interrogation is resumed, a
different interrogator will probably be introduced. Following are some examples
of loss of initiative:

* The interrogator becomes angry and completely loses his self-control because
of the arrogant actions of the source (such as the unbuttoning of a jacket
to reveal “Secret Service Sucks” spray painted onto the source’s T-shirt.)
As a result, the interrogator loses sight of his objective and concentrates
his efforts on humbling the source.

* During the interrogation the interrogator fails to note significant
discrepancies in the source’s story. The interrogator may lose his initiative
as the source gains confidence from his success and resorts to further
deception, leading the interrogator away from his objective.

* The interrogator becomes overly friendly with the source and allows him to
lead the interrogation. The source reports only what he believes to be
important and neglects several significant items of info which could have
been obtained had the interrogator maintained the initiative.

PHASES OF INTERROGATION:
========================

Approach Phase:
—————

Regardless of the type of source you are and your outward personality, you
do possess weaknesses which, if recognized by the interrogator, can be
exploited. A human being is likely to:

o Talk, especially after harrowing experiences
o Show deference when confronted by superior authority
o Rationalize acts about which he feels guilty
o Lack the ability to apply or to remember lessons he may have been
taught regarding security if confronted with a disorganized or a
strange situation.
o Cooperate with those who have control over him
o Attach less importance to a topic which the interrogator demonstrates
identical or related experiences and knowledge
o Appreciate flattery and exoneration from guilt
o Cooperate readily when given material rewards
o Cooperate readily when treated as an equal

TECHNIQUES:
===========

“File and Dossier”
—————-

The interrogator prepares a dossier containing all available info obtained
from records and docs concerning you. Careful arrangement of the material with-
in the file may give the illusion that it contains more data than is actually
there. The file may be “padded” with extra paper, if necessary. Index tabs with
titles such as “education”, “employment”, “criminal record”, “bulletin boards”,
“violated computer systems”, and others are particularly effective for this
purpose. The interrogtor will confront you with the dossier at the beginning of
the interrogation and explain that “intelligence” has provided a complete
record of every significant happening in your life; therefore, it would
be useless to resist interrogation. The interrogator may read a few selected
bits of known data to further impress you. If the technique is successful, you
will be impressed with and more importantly, terrified by the “voluminous”
file, conclude that everything is known, and resign to complete cooperation.

“We know ALL”
———–

This technique may be employed in conjunction with the above or by itself.
The interrogator must first become thoroughly familiar with the available data
concerning you. To begin the interrogation, the interrogator asks questions
based on his known data. When you hesitate, refuse to answer, or provide an
incomplete or incorrect reply, the interrogator himself provides the detailed
answer. Through the careful use of the limited number of known details, the
interrogator may convince you that all the info is already known; therefore,
your answers to the questions are of no consequence. When you begin to give
accurate and complete information, the interrogator interjects questions
designed to gain the needed info. Questions to which answers are already known
are also asked to test you and to maintain the deception that all the info is
already known. A VERY effective technique I might add.

“Rapid Fire

This approach technique involves a psychological ploy based on the principles
that:

* Everyone likes to be heard when they speak; and

* It is confusing to be interrupted in mid-sentence with an unrelated
question.

This technique may be used with one, or simultaneously by two or more
interrogators in questioning the same source. In employing this technique the
interrogator asks a series of questions in such a manner that you do not have
time to answer a question completely before the next question is asked. This
tends to confuse you and you are apt to contradict yourself, as you have little
time to prepare your answers. The interrogator then confronts you with the
inconsistencies, causing further contradictions. In many instances you
will begin to talk freely in an attempt to explain yourself and deny the
inconsistencies pointed out by the interrogator. In attempting to explain your
answers, you are likely to reveal more than you intend, thus creating
additional leads for the interrogator.

“Mutt and Jeff”
————-

This technique involves a psychological ploy which takes advantage of the
natural uncertainty and guilt which a source has as a result of being detained
and questioned. Use of this technique necessitates the employment of two
experienced interrogators who are convincing as actors. Basically, the two
interrogators will display opposing personalities and attitudes towards you.
For example the first interrogator is very formal and displays an unsympathetic
attitude. This is to make you feel cut off from your friends. At the time when
you act hopeless and alone, the second interrogator appears (having received
his cue by a signal, and is hidden from you), scolds the first interrogator for
his harsh behavior and orders him from the room. He then apologizes to soothe
you, perhaps offering coffee and a cigarette. He explains that the actions of
the first interrogator were largely the result of an inferior intellect and
lack of human sensitivity. The inference is created that the other interrogator
and you have in common a high degree of intelligence and an awareness of human
sensitivity, above and beyond that of the first interrogator. You are normally
inclined to have a feeling of gratitude towards the second interrogator, who
continues to show a sympathetic attitude in an effort to increase the rapport
and control for the questioning which will follow. Should your cooperativeness
begin to fade, the second interrogator can hint that since he is of high rank,
having many other duties, he cannot afford to waste time on an uncooperative
source. He may broadly infer that the first interrogator might return to
continue the questioning. When used against the proper source, this trick will
normally gain complete cooperation for the interrogation.

“Repetition”
———-

Repetition is used to induce cooperation from a hostile source. The inter-
rogator listens carefully to your answer to a question, and then repeats both
the question and answer several times. He does this with each succeeding
question until you become so bored with the procedure that you answer the
question fully and truthfully to satisfy the interrogator and to gain relief
from the monotony of this method of questioning. The repetition technique will
generally not work when employed against introverted sources or those having
great self control.

“Pride and Ego”
————-

This technique works effectively on many phreaks and hackers due to the fact
that many are so damn egotistical. The strategy is to trick you into revealing
desired information by flattering you. It is effective with sources who have
displayed weaknesses or feelings of inferiority. The interrogator accuses you
of weakness or implies that you are unable to do a certain thing. The proud or
egotistical source will jump to the defensive. An example of an opening
question for this technique may be: “Why would you own a blue box when you
have absolutely no idea how to use one?” or, “Why do you hack VMS systems if
you can’t do a damn thing once you’re inside of one?” It provides you with the
opportunity to show someone that you have “brains” and in doing so, you give
the interrogator more information than you should have.

“Silent”
——

The Silent technique may be successful when used against either the nervous,
or the confident-type source. When employing this technique, the interrogator
says nothing to you, but looks you squarely in the eye, probably with a slight
smile on his face. It is important for the interrogator not to look away from
you, but force you to break eye contact first. You will become nervous, begin
to shift around in your chair, and look away. If you ask questions the
interrogator probably will not answer them until he is ready to break the
silence. A source may blurt out questions such as, “What the hell do you want
with me”. When the interrogator is ready to break the silence, he may do so
with some quite nonchalant questions such as, “You’ve been logging on to our
system for a long time now, haven’t you? Did you hack the passwords yourself?”.

In some cases the interrogator will use several approach techniques
concurrently, or in succession.

QUESTIONS:
==========

There are various questions that the interrogator may ask you:

* Prepared questions: When the topic under inquiry is very technical or when
legal aspects of the interrogation require preciseness, the interrogator will
have a list of prepared questions to follow during the interrogation.

* Control questions: To maintain control and to check on the truthfulness of
a source, the normal questions will be mixed with control questions-those
with known answers. If you fail to answer these questions, or answer wrong,
it will indicate that you are either not knowledgeable in the topic or that
you are lying.

* Nonpertinent questions: Sometimes it is necessary for the interrogator to
keep the true objective of the interrogation from you. By carefully blending
pertinent questions with nonpertinent questions, the interrogator can conceal
the true purpose of the inquiry.

* Direct and leading questions: The manner in which the questions are worded
has a direct bearing on your response. A question may be posed in a number
of ways:

o “What system did you hack into on 11/11/86?”

o “Did you break into General Dynamics’ computer on 11/11/86?”

o “You did break into GD’s computer on 11/11/86?”

o “You didn’t break into GD’S computer on 11/11/86, did you?”

PSYCHOLOGY IN INTERROGATION:
============================

The interrogator will watch for various psychological responses from you during
an interrogation. Some of these are:

* Rationalization: Creating plausible excuses or explanations for one’s acts
without being aware that these excuses or explanations are way off the
[obvious] reality.

* Identification: To identify with and mimic a mental image of some one
important to you.

* Compensation: Trying to make up for a psychological weakness by building
up or exaggerating a psychological strength.

* Exhibitionism: Showing off, bragging, etc.

* Fear, Anger, Frustration, etc.

Of course when being interrogated, you should remain as emotionless as possible
and never show anger, or get upset (NEVER inflict physical abuse upon the
unsuspecting interrogator. This only creates tension between both the inter-
rogator and yourself). Your every move, every response, every action is noted
and used by the interrogator to get you to screw up and give him what he wants.

There can be two main objectives that you can obtain when being interrogated.
The first is to find ways to force the interrogator to lose his initiative. You
can do this in many ways. A few that come to mind are: Repeat everything the
interrogator says. Mimic the interrogator. Laugh at the interrogator. Basically
piss the interrogator off and make him so mad that he loses sight of his
objective. This may however, get you in deeper trouble, but it may give you
extra time while another interrogator is found.

Lie like hell to the interrogator and piss him off. Such as the pathological
liar gimmick: “I broke into the NSA’s computer, yeah, and then used their
network to get into the presidents private computer yeah that’s it, the
password was uh…Bonzo, yeah, and then used it to take control of a satellite
used for Star Wars, and made it land right on top of the Kremlin, yeah that’s
the ticket!”

You can also change the subject over and over again to totally unrelated things
such as: its a nice day out today, hows the wife and kids, how about some food,
who do you think is going to the superbowl, etc.

The other and probably better objective is simply to pretend to fall for any of
the various techniques used against you and feed the interrogator more and more
bullshit, of course being very sincere. This way he gets totally bogus
information while thinking you are cooperating fully.

Well, I hope you never have to put this article to use in a legal manner, but
you would be surprised how everyday you are interrogated without even
realizing it by normal people who probably don’t realize they are interrogating
you!

Any tips you may have please send them up to
richard@io.org

INSOMNIA PROBLEM?:

Beside Camomile at night you can take before going to sleep an
infusion of #tilleul or fleur d’oranger# or #aubepine# which all
have a definite soothing action. The following recipe is said to
resolve the worst case of insomnia.

I should try it, since I write all the time at night but then
again I am a night bird like all barmen we are the owls of life.
Now back to the grinder with this recipe; sleep on it.

In one litre of water let infuse 1/4 of a tbsp of petal de
#coquelicot# with 10 grams of lettuce leaves and a pinch of
#aubepine# flower and a pinch of #metilot#. No you don’t have to
drink the whole litre of water because you would be up all night
running to the bathroom.

Article 410 of misc.misc:
Xref: puukko sci.math:453 misc.misc:410
Path: puukko!santra!tut!enea!mcvax!uunet!seismo!sundc!pitstop!sun!decwrl!decvax!ucbvax!jade!ig!uwmcsd1!csd4.milw.wisc.edu!markh
From: markh@csd4.milw.wisc.edu (Mark William Hopkins)
Newsgroups: sci.math,misc.misc
Subject: Re: Properties of Infinity
Summary: Laissez-Faire
Keywords: Infinity properties
Message-ID:
Date: 17 Jan 88 02:49:51 GMT
References:
Sender: daemon@uwmcsd1.UUCP
Reply-To: markh@csd4.milw.wisc.edu (Mark William Hopkins)
Organization: University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Lines: 74

In article ken@pdn.UUCP (Ken Auer) writes:
>For reasons which I’d rather not explain, I need to find out several
>properties of infinity and negative infinity which I’m sure are in some
>8th grade math book (which I don’t have immediate access to).
>
>I’ve got lots of educated guesses, but I really need concrete answers
>for things like the following (concrete meaning I can call a routine
>which can supply me with a concrete answer).
>
> infinity is not even,
> infinity is not odd,
> infinity + infinity = infinity
> infinity – infinity = ?
> .
> .
> .
>
>I really don’t want to start any highly theoretical discussions here, I
>just want to know what to do when some one tries to use infinity as s/he
>would use a finite number in an equation, etc.
>
>————————————————————————–
>Ken Auer Paradyne Corporation
>{gatech,rutgers,attmail}!codas!pdn!ken Mail stop LF-207
>Phone: (813) 530-8307 P.O. Box 2826
> Largo, FL 34649-9981
>
>”The views expressed above do not necessarily reflect the views of my
>employer, which by no means makes them incorrect.”

Addition: Multiplication:

Infinity + Finite = Infinity Infinity x Infinity = Infinity

Infinity + Infinity = Infinity Infinity x Finite = Infinity,
but Infinity x 0 is undefined
Infinity + -Infinity can be
absolutely anything finite or not Infinity x -Infinity = -Infinity

-Infinity + Finite = -Infinity -Infinity x Finite = -Infinity,
with the same exception for 0 as before
-Infinity + -Infinity = -Infinity
-Infinity x -Infinity = Infinity
Subtraction:
Same as addition, with u-v treated as u+(-v):
where
-(Infinity) = -Infinity
-(-Infinity) = Infinity

Division:
Same as multiplication, with u/v treated as u x (1/v):
where
1/(-Infinity) = -0
1/(Infinity) = +0
1/(-0) = -Infinity
1/(+0) = Infinity

You’ll need to make the distinction between +0 and -0, if you’re going to say
anything useful about division with infinity.

These rules are made in such a way that all the properties (+,x,-,/) will
remain true when infinite limits are included. It is possible for a limit
to be infinite without its positive or negative sign being determined. This
limit will represent the unsigned infinity. Its negative is itself and its
reciporical is 0 (without the + or – sign). You’ll need to use all three
kinds of infinity. Much of Calculus is devoted to resolving those limits
involving the undefined operations above, like

Infinity – Infinity, Infinity x 0, Infinity/Infinity

There is a theory of infinitesimals based on what is known as Non-Standard
Analysis. Its content is completely equivalent to Calculus. In fact, it is
a reformulation of Calculus that matches very closely the original formulation
of Calculus as a calculation system for infinite and infinitesimal numbers.

Industrial aesthetics and design — interior decorating

I picked this book up at the local used book store the other day:

Joan Kron and Suzanne Slesin, High-Tech: The Industrial Style and
Source Book for the Home, (New York, Clarkson N. Potter, Inc., 1978), 286 pp.
foreword by Emilio Ambasz
designed by Walter Bernard

Yes, here it is: how to furnish your home, industrial style.
Here’s the info from the jacket, including author bios. Let’s just say
it’s a combination of RE/Search and Better Homes & Gardens. Enjoy:

_______________________________________________________________________

HIGH-TECH
The Industrial Style and Source Book for the Home

How to outfit your home with paraphernalia originally developed for
factories, battleships, dry cleaners, laboratories, Chinese restaurants, and
hundreds of other commercial and industrial users.

_CONTENTS_
THE INDUSTRIAL AESTHETIC
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
SYSTEMS
STORAGE
FURNITURE
MATERIALS
LIGHTING
THE WORKS
FINISHING TOUCHES
plus the High-Tech Directory, a 42-page illustrated buying guide,
listing hundreds of hard-to-find industrial sources.

Gym lockers in the bedroom, factory lamps over the dining table,
detection mirrors over the dressing table, movers’ pads for upholstery,
Con Ed guardrails for towel racks, I beams for end tables, steno chairs
for dining chairs, supermarket doors swinging into the kitchen, warehouse
shelving in the living room, scaffolding beds, test tubes for bud vases —
something exciting is happening in home furnishings and it’s called
high-tech. If you haven’t heard about it yet, you will soon. And its
meaning will soon become as familiar as art deco or art nouveau.

A play on the words “high-style” and “technology”, “high-tech” is a
term being used in archtectural circles to describe an increasing number of
residences and public buildings with a nuts-and-bolts-exposed-pipes
technological look or to describe residences made of prefabricated components
more commonly used to build warehouses or factories. Authors Joan Kron and
Suzanne Slesin, two infuential home-furnishings reporters, have expanded this
definition to include a parallel trend in interior design — the use of
commonplace commercial and industrial equipment in the home.

HIGH-TECH is a breakthrough book about a revolution in design that is
sweeping the country — in fact, the world. It is the first in-depth look
at the industrial aesthetic as applied to architecture and home furnishings.

Whether you live in a split-level, a loft, a penthouse, a carriage
house, or an efficiency apartment, this book will change the way you look
at the world and inspire you to explore the commercial and industrial
landscape. Why limit yourself to what is offered in traditional
furniture outlets when there is a wealth of underutilized equipment that can
moonlight residentially?

In his foreword to HIGH-TECH, Emilio Ambasz, prizewinning architect
and designer and former curator of design at the Museum of Modern Art,
explains how many of these alternative artifacts are noble pieces of
anonymous design unencumbered by the artificial need to reflect status.
In HIGH-TECH you will see, beautifully illustrated, how top designers and
architects have used ordinary, basic assembly-line products —
prefabricated mezzanines, dry cleaners’ racks, pallets (right off forklift
trucks), beakers and fleakers, Sonotubes, and Colorlith laboratory
counter tops — with style and panache, and how you can follow suit.

Neither funky nor pie in the sky, HIGH-TECH is meant to do more than
sit there on the coffee table looking pretty. It is organized logically
according to your design problems, from structural elements for renovations
to systems, storage, furniture, materials, lighting, hardware, kitchen and
bathroom appliances, and finishing touches.

In the 32-page Storage chapter, for instance, you’ll learn how to use
lockers and wardrobes, file cabinets and art supply drawers, pick racks,
doughnut baskets, small parts bins, revolving warehouse racks, and electric
conveyor systems to organize and simplify your home environment — and that’s
just the beginning.

More than the first comprehensive book about the industrial revolution
in design, more than a history of the genre, more than an interior design
book with hundreds of color pictures showing innovative uses for many
familiar industrial and commercial products and materials — HIGH-TECH
is a source book. Unlike any previous design book, it includes estimated
prices (ranging from $1 to $10,000) for many of the products illustrated as
well as the names and addresses of their manufacturers and distributors
throughout the world.

HIGH-TECH is _the_ guide to the new industrial revolution in design.

Joan Kron is a former reporter for the Home section of the New
York Times, former senior editor and home furnishings writer for New York
magazine, and associate editor at Philadelphia magazine. She has also
written for the Ladies’ Home Journal and Town & Country.

Suzanne Slesin, a senior editor at Esquire, writes about design and
home furnishings. She is a former contributing editor of New York
magazine, where she covered home furnishings. She has also contributed
to American Home, Industrial Design, Architecture Plus, Abitare, and Domus.

Walter Bernard is the art director of Time magazine, which he
redesigned last year, and the former art director of New York magazine.
He has won numerous art direction awards and is a visiting professor at
Cooper Union.

_Jacket photo_: In an East Hampton living room by Bray-Schaible
Design, a high-tech hearth/coffee table combination is surfaced in “deck
plate,” a common industrial material often used on the floors of battleship
boiler rooms. The fruit bowl is a concrete birdbath.

______________________________________________________________________

Newsgroups: freenet.shrine.songs
From: aa300 (Jerry Murphy)
Subject: History of Ohio Natives
Date: Wed, 24 Jan 90 15:34:46 EST

NATIVE AMERICANS OF THE OHIO VALLEY

Traditionally, our studies of the history of an area go back only to that point
in time when it was settled by the immigrants who came over from Europe, or the
movement inland by their descendants.

A large part of this is due to the lack of a written language by the former
owners of the land in the area, or by purely racial bigotry. But the North
American continent has been inhabited and “settled” for several centuries by
groups of people Christopher Columbus mistakenly labeled as ‘Indians’, thinking
he had reached India.

In fact, the natives of this continent have been here so long, they have evolved
into several dozens of completely different people, sharing dozens of different
languages, traditions, ways of life, and even physical characteristics. Numerous
large volumes have been written about the various Native Americans, but this
brief story will center on those who lived and worked in the same area as the
Cleveland Free-Net, the first system of public access computing of many, we
hope.

Many centuries ago, most of this continent was under the influence of the ice
cap which covered the area. A person could walk on the ice all the way from
central Asia, across what we now know as the Bering Sea, and all across the top
half of North America; in fact, many did. They propagated not only east to the
Atlantic, but southwards as well, eventually peopling the whole hemisphere.
Before the age of rapid travel and instant communications, many of these groups
of people must have shared common roots, as evidenced by so many similarities
in their ways of life, their deities, some of their languages, etc. The Inuit
people speak a common language all across the top half of the continent, from
Alaska to Greenland, even today. Further south, languages and most traditions
and ways of life adapted to the territory in which they found themselves,
usually pursuing food or escaping their enemies.

What little we know of the earliest people of the area comes from the few things
we have found that they left behind, principally in their graves. Only a very
few have been found, and it is difficult to gain a true perspective from such
limited sources. “Ohio’s Prehistoric Peoples”, written by Martha A. Potter, and
published by the Ohio Historical Society in 1968, gives us some insight into the
earliest time periods. The book includes drawings which compare their arrow
heads, tools, pipes, and other artifacts.

The very earliest time period in which it is possible to identify inhabitants of
the Ohio valley is that between 9000 and 6000 BC, when the Paleo-Indian people
were here. All we know about them is that they used a fluted-edge tool made of
flint in their hunting and gathering. The ice cap had ‘just’ retreated, and
animals had likely moved back into the area some 11,000 years ago. The Archaic
people were the next we can identify, between 6000 and 1500 BC. In addition to
flint tools, they used primitive stone tools. Perhaps they started fishing in
the great lake. The Glacial Kame people came along next, probably descendents
of the earlier peoples. They were the first to use copper for making tools and
jewelry, 2500 – 1000 BC; notice the overlap in time frames. All of this is
based on just a few graves that have been found.

Carbon dating of the few materials which survived that far back allow iden-
tification of the Adena people, 1000 BC – 700 AD. They were the first farmers
in the area, and built huts in settlements. They also built the earliest
mounds, including the Serpent. Again an overlap; the people first found on the
Hopewell Farm in Ross County lived here between 300 BC and 700 AD. They not
only built mounds, but heroic-proportioned earthen works, and are known as the
Hopewells. Next came the Cole people, named for the finding on the Walter S.
Cole site in Delaware County, who lived there between 800 – 1300 AD. Each
of these peoples probably evolved from the other as time went by. There are
differences in the artifacts they left behind, as well as differences in
locations and types of burials; hence the differences in name. Part of the
evolutionary cycle was likely due to changes in the atmosphere which led to
differences in vegetation and animal life, not to mention the evolution in
finding and utilizing raw materials for tools, shelter and clothing. We come to
the last of these pre-historic peoples in the time frame of 1000 – 1654 AD; in
southern Ohio we had the Fort Ancients, and in the north we had the Eries.
These were the first who apparently used the bow and arrow in this area.

All of these various peoples used flint in their spearheads and other tools.
While there was a large supply of flint in Coshocton County, the more famous
flint came from Flint Ridge in Licking and Muskingum Counties; this flint was of
a higher quality, and had various colors. But not all of the flint was found
here in Ohio; some came from across the lake in Ontario, as we shall soon see.
Now we come to the historic period. We come to the time period of the 15th –
17th centuries, where there are some reasonable records and artifacts. Large
numbers of Native Americans inhabited the entire eastern seaboard, the Saint
Lawrence valley, the Great Lakes area, and all points south and west. Principal
villages were close to sources of drinking water, and near land that could be
cleared, tilled and planted, as well as near the areas where animals that
provided food and skins could be located. They had to compete with one another
for these various necessities, and tribal warfare was not uncommon. When they
defeated an enemy tribe, they frequently tortured, killed or maimed most of the
members of the defeated group. But it was not uncommon for them to adopt some
of the defeated people as their own, either for chattels or for mates; they were
well aware of the need not to marry a close relative, and most tribes specifi-
cally forbade marrying someone from their own clan or sept.

Living along the northern shore of Lake Erie, as we now know it, and west into
the area we now call southeastern Michigan, and northwestern Ohio, were the
people that French explorers named Neutral, so named because they took no part
in the wars between the Huron and Iroquois. In fact, they were not only hunters
and farmers, they also had a monopoly on flint from their quarries near Point
Abino in southern Ontario, and were experienced traders. Their principal allies
included the Wenrohronon. (aka Wenro’s) The Wenrohronon lived in a small area
in what we now call New York state, along the south shore of Lake Ontario. The
tribal name meant “people of the place of the floating scum”; they had oil in
their local water. Their alliance with the Neutrals fell apart in 1639, and
they then sought protection with the Huron.

The Huron were the greater traders, and lived all over southeastern Canada,
taking over most of Ontario and Quebec provinces. They called themselves
“Wendat”, meaning islanders or peninsula dwellers. The word survives today as
Wyandotte. Their first documented experience with white men was with Jacques
Cartier, along the St. Lawrence river, in 1534. At this time, they were at war
with the Iroquois, and were subsequently driven from the area to Huronia, where
Samuel de Champlain found them in 1615. Champlain helped them mount several
attacks against the Iroquois, but they were eventually defeated by them, in
1648-50. Fleeing from the Iroquois, the Huron moved west and north, living
amongst the several peoples around the northern and western parts of the Great
Lakes. In 1745, a large party of Huron moved into the area we now call Sandus-
ky. Except for a brief move to White River, Indiana, they ranged all over Ohio
in the coming years, finally allowing the Shawnee from the south, and the
Delaware from the east, to move into Ohio in the mid-18th century as neighbors.
Prior to this, though, they were friendly with the Erighs (Eries).

This tribe of people, called the “Cat People”, lived all along the south shore
of Lake Erie, to which they gave it’s name. Their neighbors to the west were
the Neutrals and the Miamis, and later the Wyandotte (Huron). To the east were
the dreaded and powerful Iroquois. To the south, they knew the Honniasont, and
southwest the Shawnee. Because of their alliance with the Huron, they were
defeated as a people by the Iroquois in 1656. Their bows and arrows were no
match for the guns provided to the Iroquois by Dutch traders. The Iroquois
wanted the hunting grounds of Ohio. The mountains they were raised in were no
match for the fertile, and relatively flat, lands of Ohio and the Can-tuc-kee
as the Shawnee called it. (Kentucky).

The Miami had been pushed around long enough by the time the wars with the
whites got them so heavily involved. They had begun in the area near Green Bay,
Wisconsin, and migrated, or escaped, to the south and west, and then east, such
that they had people scattered between Chicago and Detroit, and all along the
border between Ohio and Indiana. Named after them are the rivers Miami, Little
Miami, and Maumee. In conjunction with the Shawnee and several other tribes,
they participated in, and lost, the Battle of the Fallen Timbers in 1794, which
led to the treaty of Greenville in 1795, when most of eastern and southern Ohio
was taken from the red men, and opened up to white settlers. The Army General
who had won this battle, marching out of his Fort Defiance, was “Mad” Anthony
Wayne. His aide was William Henry Harrison.

The Shawnee, meaning “southerners”, migrated into the area from Tennessee.
Their 5 tribes included the Piqua, Chillikothe, and Kispokotha, as well as 2
others. Their principal areas of settlement were southern Ohio, and reached
into western Pennsylvania, mostly along the Ohio river and her tributaries.
When the white men started pushing west over the Appalachians, the Shawnee were
most adamant about repelling the invasion. One of their earlier war chiefs was
a Kispokotha adoptee, a white man who took the name Blue Jacket (d. 1810); he
had been born Marmaduke van Swearingen, and is possibly related to the van
Sweringens who developed the Nickel Plate Railroad, Shaker Heights, Ohio, and
the Terminal Tower complex. ‘Duke’ was from the same area of Virginia as the
ancestors of our more modern van Sweringens. Later, the great chief Tecumseh led
the Shawnee and thousands of other native Americans in trying to repel the
spread of white men into their lands; he died in 1813.

Another famous chief was an Ottawa named Pontiac, who came from the area we now
know as Detroit, Michigan. The Ottawa had been located in the area of Canada
north of Lake Huron, but ranged far to the east, in concert with the Huron
Nation. Champlain visited them on Georgian Bay in 1615. Following the defeat
of the Huron by the Iroquois, they were forced west and south, settling in the
areas around Lakes Michigan, Huron, St. Clair and Superior, where they went into
the fur business, trading with the French for needed goods. They were principal
allies of the French during the French & Indian Wars.

Also in Ohio from time to time, and playing major roles in the various wars and
treaties, were the Illinois, Chippewa, Kickapoo, Mosopelea and Potawatomi. But
their principal homelands were elsewhere. And in southeastern Ohio in later
years were the Indians who confederated as the Mingoes; they were of these
and other further east tribes and nations.

Supporting the British all this time were the Iroquois, who had wanted to stay
out of it all, but were forced into defending their lands against the hated
French (and their enemies of old who were aligned with the French). The
“Iroquois” is perhaps a misnomer; there was not just one tribe known as the
Iroquois. In fact, the Iroquois were a confederation of five separate nations,
later six, principally from the state of New York, but who operated in a very
large area, as far south as the Potomoc, and as far west as the Mississippi.
Their principal hunting grounds were in Ohio. From east to west, they included
the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca; later they were joined by the
Tuscarora. Legend has it that they were once warring with one another, but were
united into a League of Nations by Hiawatha and Dekanawida. They had a demo-
cratic form of government, with two ‘houses’ and a judiciary. While I have not
yet found written documentation from the period among European sources, (there
was no written language then among the Iroquois, and only word of mouth trans-
cripts of their legends survive), they did have a constitution, rumored to date
from somewhere around 1390, give or take 100 years. You will find it in the
section of Free-Net with other documents that preceeded The Constitution of the
United States.

As referenced in “The Genius of the People”, it is said that their constitution
began with the phrase: “We, the people, to form a union…”; it was this
constitution that John Rutledge of South Carolina used as a basis for coordinat-
ing the several details of the Philadelphia debates into what we now call the
Constitution of the United States. But that Iroquois constitution, reproduced
elsewhere in The Freedom Shrine, does NOT contain this phrase, nor anything like
it. There are many other references to this form of government among the
Iroquois, as well as contacts between the Framers and members of this confedera-
tion. See the speech elsewhere in this Freedom Shrine by Dr. Donald Grinde. See
also the lengthy bibliography, from which came most of these details.

GERALD E. MURPHY (c) 1988

From: bole@hmivax.humgen.upenn.edu (Greg Bole)
Subject: Re: Movie legends

In article ,
jon@leland.Stanford.EDU (Jon Corelis) writes:

First of all Jon…great post! Thanks alot.

> * The phrase “In like Flynn” originated as a coarse reference to
> Errol Flynn’s powers as a seducer.

In November, 1942, Flynn was charged with statutory rape, arrested and
brought to trial, then acquitted. He was charged with having sexual
intercourse with two girls under the age of 18. (He was 33 at the time)

According to “The Complete Films of Errol Flynn” (1969):

“It was Flynn’s belief that the Los Angeles district attorney had made
him a scapegoat for Hollywood in order to discipline the film community.”

“He later admitted he had made an arrangement with a private aviator to
fly him out of the country immediately had he not been acquitted.”

“Jerry Giesler (Flynn’s ace lawyer) considered Flynn an excellent witness
and thought that his gentlemanly demeanor throughout the trial had been an
important factor.”

“A new phrase was added to the English language: ‘In like Flynn’.”

“The problem of nuclear weapon proliferation will not be solved until the
root cause is attacked. This is the belief that nuclear weapons are desirable
things to have, whether for use in fighting wars, in deterring and/or
intimidating adversaries, or only as symbols of technological power or
political equality with the mighty. Until all these motivations are shown to
be empty, and until nuclear weapons are outlawed by a world consensus that
they are too dangerous, politically and militarily counter-productive and
morally unacceptable, the threat of nuclear proliferation will remain.”

p.83, Uranium Enrichment & Nuclear Weapon Proliferation, SIPRI, A. Krass et al.

IMPLOSION ASSEMBLY

The idea here is to have a hollow shell of fissionable material, and compress
it using carefully placed surrounding explosives. By pressuring the material
into a smaller volume, you increase the density. By doing so, you increase the
probability of a neutron split over neutron loss. You need a precise spherical
shock wave for compression.

The collapsed core is then irradiated with external neutrons to start fission.
The number of nuclei fissioning during later generations is proportional to
how many nuclei you have fissioning initially. This depends on the initial
neutron flux.

Fusion Boosting

At the centre of the core you can have solid Li6D. Some time before detonation
you could also inject the core with T gas, from some exterior device. The idea
is to achieve a fusion reaction in the central pit.

During implosion, the core gains a high enough temperature and
pressure for fusion reactions to occur. The synergy between fusion and fission
reactions greatly improves chain reaction efficiency. Neutrons released from
fusion have much higher energies than those released via fission processes.
When these ultra fast neutrons hit U-235 nuclei, the splitting releases more
neutrons than when U-235 are hit with fission neutrons. The chain reaction
multiplies rapidly, leading to higher temperatures, and more fusion. The
ultimate result is more U-235 splitting than you would have without the
boost.

The shell may be made of U-235 or Pu-239. The first Chinese test employed
a U-235 shell.

Another technique is to introduce a tamper of some sort, which is another shell
surrounding the fissionable material. This shell is usually made of
Beryllium or U-238. It’s purpose is to reflect escaping neutrons back into
the reaction. This has the effect of reducing the amount of fissionable
material needed for a reaction.

The Fat Man bomb used a hollow core, but present day weapons might employ a
solid (subcritical) core of fissile material. The density increase in a solid
core reduces the amount of critical mass required for a chain reaction. This
is because the reaction cross section is substantially increased.

Core Levitation

To increase the impact of the tamper on the fissionable shell, you can
levitate the shell. You leave an air gap between the two materials. This
has the effect of increasing momentum transfer, and hence facilitating
implosion. According to Ted Taylor, in John McPhee’s book (see Refs):

“[Taylor] said there was something about the structure of implosion
bombs that he had not gone into, and that he could not go into, which
contributed greatly to their yield… ‘All I can say is this: They
had known all along that the way to get more energy into the middle was
to hit the core harder. When you hammer a nail, what do you do? Do you
put the hammer on the nail and push?'”

============================================================================

[1] Uranium Detonator
—————–

Comprised of 2 parts. Larger mass is spherical and concave.
Smaller mass is precisely the size and shape of the `missing’
section of the larger mass. Upon detonation of conventional
explosive, the smaller mass is violently injected and welded
to the larger mass. Supercritical mass is reached, chain
reaction follows in one millionth of a second.

[2] Plutonium Detonator
——————-

Comprised of 32 individual 45-degree pie-shaped sections of
Plutonium surrounding a Beryllium/Polonium mixture. These 32
sections together form a sphere. All of these sections must
have the precisely equal mass (and shape) of the others. The
shape of the detonator resembles a soccerball. Upon detonation
of conventional explosives, all 32 sections must merge with the
B/P mixture within 1 ten-millionths of a second.

____________________________________________________________________________

– Diagram –
————-
____________________________________________________________________________
|
[Uranium Detonator] | [Plutonium Detonator]
______________________________________|_____________________________________
_____ |
| 😐 | . [2] .
| 😐 | . ~ _/ ~ .
| [2]:| | .. . ..
| 😐 | [2]| . |[2]
| .:| | . ~~~ . . . ~~~ .
`…::’ | . . . . .
_ ~~~ _ | . . ~ . .
. `| |’:.. | [2]. . . . [1] . . . ./[2]
. | | `:::. | ./ . ~~~ . .
| | `::: | . . : . .
. | | :::: | . . . . .
| [1] | ::|:: | . ___ . ___ .
. `. .’ ,::||: | [2]| . |[2]
~~~ ::|||: | .’ _ `.
.. [2] .::|||:’ | . / .
::… ..::||||:’ | ~ -[2]- ~
:::::::::::::||||::’ |
“::::||||||||:” |
“:::::” |
|
|
|
|
[1] = Collision Point | [1] = Collision Point
[2] – Uranium Section(s) | [2] = Plutonium Section(s)
|
|
______________________________________|_____________________________________
============================================================================

– Diagram for Plutonium Bomb –
——————————–
[Gravity Bomb – Implosion Model]
——————————–
-> Cutaway Sections Visible <-

============================================================================

/
/ | : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| :______||:_____________________________: |
|/_______||/______________________________|
~ | : |:| /
| | : |:| /
| | :__________|:| /
|:_ | :__________:| /
|___ |______________| /
| |~ /
|_______|__________________/
|_____________________________|
/
/
/
/ _______________
/ ___/ ___
/____ __/ __ ____
[3]_______________________________ ___|
/ __/ __
/ / /
/ / ___________
/ / __/_____________
./ /__ ___ /================= ___ __ .
[4]——-> ___||___|====|[[[[[|||||||]]]]]|====|___||___ <——[4]
/ / |=o=o=o=o=o=o=o=o=| <——————-[5]
.' / _______ _______/ `.
: |___ |*| ___| :
.' | _________________ |*| _________________/ | `.
: | ___________ ___ |*| / ___ ___________ | :
: |__/ / _\*//_/ / __| :
: |______________:|:____:: **::****:|:******** ||||||’ .:::;~|~~~___~~~|~;:::. `|||||*|| ::’ .::’ |_________|/ `::: `::. `|* `:____:::::::::::____:’ <—————–[12]
“`::::_____::::'''
~~~~~

============================================================================

– Diagram Outline –
———————

[1] – Tail Cone
[2] – Stabilizing Tail Fins
[3] – Air Pressure Detonator
[4] – Air Inlet Tube(s)
[5] – Altimeter/Pressure Sensors
[6] – Electronic Conduits & Fusing Circuits
[7] – Lead Shield Container
[8] – Neutron Deflector (U-238)
[9] – Conventional Explosive Charge(s)
[10] – Plutonium (Pu-239)
[11] – Receptacle for Beryllium/Polonium mixture
to facilitate atomic detonation reaction.
[12] – Fuses (inserted to arm bomb)

============================================================================

1994

Put some expression into your text!

Are you afraid that you come across differently
electronically than you do on paper, over the phone or
in person? The answer may be icons! The icons listed
below can help you express those no-verbal signals that
are all but impossible to express over the net.

Any additions to this list would be greatly appreciated!
Send all comments and additions to David Melnik at 107/233.

🙂 Smiling

🙁 Frowning

‘-) Wink

😉 Sardonic incredulity

%-) Drunk with laughter

:-” Pursing lips

:-O Wow!

😐 Grim

:= | Baboon

:-v Speaking

:-V Shouting

:-W Speak with forked tongue

:-r Sticking tongue out

:-* Oops! (covering mouth with hand)

:-T Keeping a straight face (tight-lipped)

😀 Said with a smile

😡 Kiss

:-c Real unhappy

:-C Just totally unbelieving! (Jaw dropped)

:-B Drooling

:-, Smirk

:-|| Anger

:-$ Uncertainty

:-# Mouth zipped

:-& Tangled up tongue

:-@ Swearing

—————————————————————–

>>> Stolen from Love Over Gold <<>> Then found on Amstrad Opus <<<

THE HUMBLE TELESCOPE
David Daye
Columbus, OH

A quick, fun telescope project for kids and lazy adults is the
Humble Telescope, a solar viewer that can produce foot- to yard-
sized images of the sun, including sunspots down to a few earth
diameters. And although far simpler than a similarly-named
instrument, the Humble Telescope may be a more reliable, cost-
effective way of viewing of detail on a heavenly body.

Since a pinhole camera works not by refraction but by simple
geometry, it follows that a tiny MIRROR should create as good an
image as a pinhole in a lightproof box. The advantage of the
mirror is that you can shoot its image anywhere you please, into a
darkened room far enough back to produce big if somewhat dim
images. You can only do that with a pinhole by making a barn-sized
viewer.

As with the Other telescope, the key element here is a special
mirror — but this one only needs to be a flat FRONT-silvered one,
in almost any shape of 1 square inch or more. While you, too, can
have one specially made by a government contractor, you can also
pick one up in any shopping mall parking lot, where they are
produced by the timeless forces of automobile fender-benders.

The shiny part has to be on top, because the image is ruined
if light has to pass in and out of glass. Clamp the mirror to your
camera tripod (kids: stick it on a dry rock with bubble gum). Now
make the pinhole “mask” that does the actual imaging. Take your
business card (the gum wrapper) and poke a 1/8″ to 1/4″ hole with
your executive pen (rusty nail).

Open the window of your viewing room–glass, screen and all–
and block off most of the opening with shades or towels. Go out
into the sun and use the light of the full mirror to aim the image
into the room. (Prop your mounting rock into position.) Gently
tack the mask over the mirror with tape so that only the pinhole
area is exposed.

Dash in and watch or photograph at will! Sunspots appear as
dim smudges that wiggle and move along with the image of the disk.
You have about a minute before the disk tracks away from the
window. The farther the mirror from the wall, the bigger but
dimmer the image. The bigger the pinhole, the brighter but
blurrier the image.

For better viewing: 1) Set up a flat, white cardboard or
screen for the image. 2) Keep the room the same temperature as
outoors to minimize heat distortion. 3) Keep the room dark as
possible so as to see more dim sunspots. 4) Have parent or teacher
do the aiming so you can keep your eyes used to the dark.

Tension testing of four different twines
By Derek Voll
EM 307
4/30/92

Abstract
In this experiment I pulled apart cotton, jute, hemp and nylon twine to
test their ultimate strength. I used a standard tension testing machine
equipped with a load versus displacement plotter. I could not calculate
strain and was thereby limited by the lack of theory to back up my
observations and make descriptive numerical calculations. I did repeat the
tests to produce an average value of ultimate load for each twine group. I
used this value to make a rough stress calculation. Nylon is the strongest,
cotton the weakest and jute and hemp are about equal in strength. I had quite
a bit of difficulty with the nylon specimens because of their high strength
but the others worked out all right.

Introduction
For my independent project I choose to test the strength of four
different kinds of twine, cotton, jute, hemp, and nylon. There are many
factors in choosing the right twine of the job it will be used for, cost,
temperature to be used at, availability, creep and fatigue characteristics.
These and other parameters could be analyzed in future studies to find the
best twine but my project will focus on tensile strength. I think the results
will be meaningful to someone buying twine and the twine producers. In fact
the suppliers of the hemp twine were quite interested in my report and would
like some copies; they would like more scientific information on hemp since
there is so little scientific investigation or research concerning hemp.

My procedure was to obtain twines with similar dimensions, pull them
apart using a standard tension testing machine, collect load versus
displacement plots for each of the specimens and then compare and analyze the
data. I used a tension testing machine with a capacity of 1000 pounds which
had a load versus displacement plotting machine connected to it. By wrapping
the twine around the round spool three times, I relied on the large friction
force to hold the twine in place. This force was not large enough for the
nylon twine and I used the pneumatic grips instead. The pneumatic grips
provided more friction which I needed to hold the nylon twine in place.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS
I would like to start with some general observations of the experiment.
First, the tests of the cotton, jute and hemp twines proceeded with few
problems and their failure occured in the middle of the specimen, which is
desirable in any tensile test since the experimenter can more easily observe
the fracture area and disregard any stress concentration at the clamp-twine
connection. however, for my first two samples of nylon I tried to use the
same clamps that I had used for the other twines but in both cases the twine
overcame the clampUs friction force before failure but after some stretching
(the twine was pulled out of the clamps). Therefore, I switched to the
pneumatic clamps but the nylon still slipped some, wearing the surface of the
twine and causing stress concentrations. The nylon broke at this worn area
near the clamps. Stress concentrations are the very tiny notches and
imperfections in a material that produced a high localized stress. Also, I
did not have enough nylon so I used the same specimens that I had used in the
other clamps and one new specimen. The first two specimens broke sooner and
under less load (see Fig #XX) and this was expected since they had already
undergone some plastic deformation and recovery. I did not realize how strong
and difficult to test the nylon would be. I know my procedure and the
following results for nylon are not accurate but it should be obvious that the
nylon is definitely the strongest of the four twines. I have graphed each of
the specimens together in their respective group (Figs XX- XX) to show the
variances between the individual specimens; nylon has the greatest variance in
displacement and ultimate load as expected but it should be noted that hemp
twines show the second largest variance in ultimate load (all hemp specimens
are from Hungary but the specimens with the lower ultimate load were from a
different supplier than the other three). From these graphs we see that
cotton is the weakest and nylon is the strongest. I would like to point out
that these graphs do not tell the whole story and a better indication of
strength would be a stress versus strain plot, which was impossible to make
since stains could not be calculated because we did not have access to an
extensometer. However, if you look at the sample calculations in the appendix
you will see that the hemp twine had a slightly thicker cross section and the
corresponding stress was comparable to that of the jute twine. Even with this
fundamental calculation we must realize that each twine was probable woven
differently and all their diameters were slightly different.

Looking closely at the graphs for the cotton and nylon specimens you will
see that there are little ridges and drop-offs before fracture; these points
are where the rope must have been slipping in the grips. The curves reach a
high point and then drop off suddenly, the high point is the ultimate strength
point. This high point can be considered the failure point too but I would
like to point out the sharp rises after this point. These sharp rises occur
in the jute, cotton and hemp twine and represent the few fibers that did not
snap at the ultimate strength point. These last fibers stretched a little
further and then snapped under a lesser load. This is different from the
characteristic necking and fracturing that we have learned about in class
where we mainly dealt with metals.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, I have learned more about tensile testing and the
improvements needed in different applications involving the fundamentals of
stress, strain and fracture mechanics that we have learned in class. I think
that with more accurate tests the results I have found would hold up. I
observed that nylon is indubitably the strongest, cotton the weakest and hemp
and jute are about even. There was some slipping, variance in cross sections
and some amount of error attributed to operator inexperience and the overall
measuring procedure.

Released to the media after Dr. thompson was exonerated on various sex and
weapons crimes:

WOODY CREEK COLORADO, May 31, 1990- Famed Gonzo journalist Dr. Hunter S.
Thompson waves to a frezied mob of his supporters at yesterday’s press
conference on the steps of the Pitkin County Courthouse. . . where all charges
on Sex, Drugs, Bombs and violence crimes against the doctor were dissmissed
with prejudice by district court judge Charles Buss, who called Thompson “a
perfect gentleman” and excoriated the district attorney for negligence,
malfeasance and criminal abuse of police power. Spectators aplauded as dept.
district attorney Chip “shiteyes” McCrory wept openly at the verdict and was
led from the courtroom by bailiffs.
Thompson denounced the dissmissal as “pure cowardice” and said he would
“appeal it at once” to the Colorado supreme court.
Thompson descirbed the District attorney’s “whole goddamn staff” as “thugs
liars crooks” and “lazy human scum . . . These stupid brutes tried to destroy
my whole life” he said, “and now they tell me to just forget it.”
“Fuck that!” he screeched. “They are guilty! They should be hung up by
their heels from iron telephone poles on the road to woody creek!”
The crowd roared and surged forward, chanting “Yes! Now! Hang them now!”
A man with a pitchfork rushed up the ancient stone steps and attemped to
enter the courthouse, but he was hurled away by Thompson, who blocked the
doorway and told the crowd to “be calm.”
“Not now!” he shouted. “Not today! But soon! Yes! We will PUNISH them!
We will chop off their fingers and gnaw on their sculls and feed their flesh to
our animals!”
The crowd responded by ripping up trees in the courtyard and hammering
crazily on the hoods of nearby police cars. “Death to the weird,” they howled.
“They shall not pass! PUNISH them!” At this point Dr. Thompson was seized from
behind by his two high-powered attorneys and rushed to a waiting car, which
departed at high speed.
Later from his heavily guarded fortress called “Owl Farm,” Thompson’s
lawyers issued a statement that called him “a hero, a saint . . . and the
bravest man in America. . . . Dr. Thompson is a great poet,” they said, “who
often speaks in apocalyptic terms.
“His comments earlier today about Death, Cannablism, and Vengeance should
not be construed in any way as a threat to the physical safety of any living
thing.”
The statement was hailed by the press as “further proof that Dr. Thompson
should be awarded the Nobel Prize for peace.”
“The Doctor will have no further comment on The Case,” his attorneys said,
“for legal reasons stemming from his $22 million civil lawsuit against the
district attorney’s office, which will be formally filed next week.”
Later that night, however, the restive Gonzo journalist issued a mysterious
“personal statement” that local authorities called “very gracious, very
strange, and very bloodthirsty all at once.”
He spoke of “a historical mandate,” citing mysterious blood feuds. He
refused to talk about his rumored blood relationship to Gengis Khan, Cassius
Clay, John Gotti, and other legendary warriors.
“But you forget, I am Lono. I am He. When the great bell rings I will be
there.”
Thompson refused to elaborate on his claim to be Someone Else, and his
aides brusquely turned aside press queiries. Reporters who persisted were
roughed up by burly “advisors” wearing bulletproof vests and “Owl
Farm/Security” badges. One TV journalist, who begged not to be named, said he
was taken to “a cistern somewhere in the compound” and forced to strip naked
while standing knee-deep in “ice cold water rushin up from an underground
river.” For “many hours,” he said, he was tormented by drunken lawyers and
mocked by what appeared to be naked women.

How to evaluate new members… Weed out informants and agent-provocateurs.

NOTE – Spy & CounterSpy does not endorse, condone, or encourage any illegal act.
The material in this article is presented for information, research,
entertainment, and education purposes only. The words “you” and “your” are used
in this article only for ease of readability.

Assessing the risks. It is imperative that you run tests to verify the
reliability and integrity of new recuits who are applying to join your cell.
Failure to evaluate recruits will result in your group being penetrated by your
adversary – much like the militia groups in the USA have been penetrated by the
FBI.

Every time you admit a new recuit into your cell you are risking the security of
your group. Yes, the recruit might be a bona fide supporter of your cause – or
he might be an informant or an agent-provocateur.

The Informant. The informant is a cell member who is providing information to
your adversary. He may betray you for money. She may betray you because she is
being blackmailed. He may betray you because he is unethical, immoral, and
weak-willed. She may betray you because she has a passive-aggressive personality
disorder.

The Agent-provocateur. The agent-provocateur is someone who feigns enthusiastic
support for your cause while enticing you to commit acts that are illegal. She
is acting on the instructions of the FBI – or she may actually be an FBI agent.
You are being set up for arrest, interrogation, and conviction.

The Mole. The mole is a cell member who quietly works to sabotage your
operations. He may deliberately forget to do things that result in failed
operations. He may intentionally ruin meetings with specious arguments and
pointless debate, often introducing paranoia into the discussion. A typical mole
is a long-time cell member who has been recruited by the FBI, perhaps by
blackmail. Less frequently the mole is an FBI agent who has penetrated the
organization at an early stage in its development.

The Counterintelligence Role. It is vital that your organization have a
counterintelligence officer. This is someone whose role is to detect and
neutralize attempted penetrations by the enemies of your organization. Whether
this is a formal position or an ad hoc role is not important. Someone in your
group must take steps to systematically and conscientiously evaluate new
recuits.

If you don’t make an effort to defend yourself against penetration by your
adversary, then you’ll end up like the militia groups in the US… paranoid,
disorganized, ineffective, and – more often than not – in custody.

Reveal some sensitive bogus information to the suspected informant, then wait
for things to go wrong.

Uncover informants…

Here is how established resistance movements uncover informants.

First, reveal some sensitive information to the recruit – and only to the
recruit. For example, you might inform him of the existence of a (bogus) hidden
cache of weapons.

Then wait and watch. If the cache is suddenly discovered by the authorities, you
may be dealing with an informant. More tests may be required to confirm your
suspicions.

In serious cases where you’re playing by Big Boys’ Rules, you might need to use
live bait. If your adversary is sophisticated and experienced, you might need to
reveal genuine secrets to the recruit you’re evaluating. For example, you might
reveal the name of a whistleblower who is leaking information to you about your
adversary. If your recruit betrays your information to your adversary, you’ll
have lost your whistleblower – but you’ll have unmasked an informant before he
can do too much damage.

The most reliable method for unmasking an agent-provocateur is to ask him to
be the first to commit to action.

Unmask an agent-provocateur…

Here is how any organization can unmask an agent-provocateur.

If the person is full of ideas for future operations, then insist that he lead
by example. Make him commit himself first. Or, to put it another way, make him
incriminate himself first before asking others to risk injury, exposure, or
arrest.

If the person balks, then he may simply be “all talk”. Or he may be a coward. Or
he may be an agent-provocateur. In either case, you’ve called his bluff and now
you know not to fall for his jive-talk.

Enforce compliance…

Here is how resistance movements enforce compliance with the counterintelligence
functions.

If a trusted cell member brings an outsider into your group – or reveals
sensitive information to an outsider – without performing any of these
counterintelligence measures, then that cell member must be severely
disciplined.

Depending on your situation, simply ostracizing the individual may suffice.
Revoking his membership may be all it takes to remove the threat he poses.
Or firmer steps may need to be taken.

Copyright ©1998 Lee Adams. All rights reserved.
Ascii version by: MRF

“How to Create the Perpetual Party.”
Most parties of this day and age are small events; rarely bringing in more
than fifty to sixty people. A majority of these parties are sponsored by high
school kids who love being killed by their parents. All this is nice and well,
but if you want a real party, it has to last forever. The following instruc-
tions document entirely the materials and steps to be taken in order to create
the Perpetual Party. (Do not try this at home. You’ll never fix your house!)
In order to begin, you must have an overabundance of money or an inher-
itance from some insane uncle. (He’d have to be insane to leave anything to
you!)
Now, the first step is to purchase a good sized estate: about 10 to 15
acres. Make sure you use Astro-turf and put steel cages around the trees.
Upon this tract of land, build a 20 bedroom, 10 bathroom, and 2 kitchen house.
Make sure that all walls, floors, and ceilings are fireproof, washproof, and
immune to structural damage.
The next step is to get furniture. Get heavy duty, king-sized beds, steel
reinforced tables, and about 6 to 7 bars. Be sure to bolt all furniture to the
floor. Oh, don’t forget to put a couch in every room. With vynil covers, of
course.
The next step is to get entertainment. Get at least four or five stereo
systems, a VCR and TV for every room in the house, and one or two video game
rooms. If you think it will lengthen the attention span of your guests, you
can get live entertainment. Female and male strippers would do nicely. Or, if
you really want some raunchy material, get some female mud wrestlers. Also,
get at least five copies of every rock song and X-rated movie available. A
favorite thing to get is a swimming pool full of Jello. It provides for hours
of good, wholesome fun.
The next thing to be gotten is food and drink to last for at least a year
or two. Try to get foods with either high sodium, high sugar, and/or high
grease content. Good examples are potato chips, pretzels, cake, ice-cream,
candy, anything from McDonald’s or Wendy’s, or any organic material from a
nearby high-school cafeteria.
As far as drinks are concerned, try and avoid alcoholic beverages unless
you have a reliable bus service. Any type of accident can easily bring any
party, Perpetual or not, to an end. Good drinks to get are beer, vodka,
tequila, scotch, bourbon, rum, soda, etc. To complement the food and drinks,
get the following medicines: Ex-Lax, Pepto Bismol, Alka Seltzer, any type of
generic aspirin except Tylenol, and easy access to a toilet.
After all the above is achieved, the time to start the party has begun.
In order to get a good turnout for the first few weeks, you must advertise.
Advertisements in local newspapers are not enough, you must advertise in
magazines and other national periodicals that will not object to your ad. One
way to really bring ’em in is to advertise on TV and radio. This is where an
ad agency can come in handy.
Eventually, people will not take your ads as jokes and come to your place
of social immoralities. Now, here is where you must begin to plan ahead.
Since you have started a Perpetual Party, you must make sure it remains per-
petual. In order to do this, you must get contracts of indefinite termination
with certain companies. It is important to get a hold of a good and reliable
catering service. Keeping in touch with three or four local liquor shops is
necessary. See if you can get flat rate service from the phone company, and
buy stock in the electric company. With the bills you’ll be running up, it
will pay off.
By now, your vast riches have dwindled to almost nothing. Since this is a
business, you need capital, so charge your guests admission fees. Don’t make
the prices too high or people will not want to come. But don’t be too generous
or you’ll be broke in no time. If you can’t bear to charge admission in money,
at least charge it in food and/or drink. That way you’ll at least save on the
caterer. Try to throw fees around as much as you can without making it look
suspicious. One way to get money rolling in is to open up a small casino. Get
a license for it. As mentioned earlier, you want to avoid trouble.
Eventually, unless you had a very strange accident or are a mad scientist,
you will die. And if you make no plans for this, your party will certainly die
out. So, during the many years of partying, find one person who fits you the
best and get married and have kids. When you near your end, leave the entire
party, all profits, and all responsibilities to the kid who is the more extreme
party animal. Be sure to leave explicit instructions on how to run the party.
This document is perfect. If all goes well, things will continue under good
hands.
So far, these are the necessary steps needed to create the Perpetual
Party. If anything has been omitted, (which is probably true) go ahead and
augment this document. It’s your party anyway.

By: Fermin Bueno

A one-minute course on how to do T.V.

by Richard Freeman
—————————————————————————-

A SHORT TIME BEFORE I DROPPED out of Anthropology, I was regaled with what
I now think of as suburban legends. The one I still remember concerned a
tribe somewhere that was shown, perhaps on a bedsheet hung from a tree limb,
their first motion picture. No one in the tribe knew what to make of the
action. Instead, they all followed a chicken that was in one of the scenes.
I wonder (not only what movie had a chicken in it but whether this story
could possibly be true).

What makes me wonder is my experience producing television programs. I’ve
helped set up a TV station in town for almost no money at all, and I’ve
watched fifth-graders learn to use all the equipment in under 15 minutes –
and go on to do their own shows with interviews and trivia contests and
music. Either the technology is very simple or we are watching a miracle.

Whenever I teach someone how to use a TV camera, I always feel like
apologizing that it wasn’t more complicated. That there isn’t more to learn
and more to say. The only trick is learning that it is this easy. What stops
most people, I think, is the idea that TV is terribly technologically
complex and expensive … whereas all that you need, if you have cable
access, is a camcorder and about $500 worth of sound equipment. Anything
else is gravy.

First you need to live in a small town with a cable access channel that
isn’t being used. I assume there are lots of towns like mine – Yellow
Springs, Ohio – that have that cable capability but haven’t used it yet.

Certainly the equipment needed is simple. For the audio, we use a Radio
Shack control board (the under-$100 model works fine) which allows us to
plug in three microphones, a cassette deck, and a CD player. Add a small
pair of $50 monitor speakers, some wire, and a telephone and you can go on
the air as a radio station.

To do just radio (over the TV), all you need to do is plug a connection cord
from the board into the tuner that’s hooked up to the cable modulator.

The next step is to produce TV. To do this you need a camcorder and a
tripod. It too plugs right in. Kids learn to handle the camcorder in under a
minute (all there is to learn is what button to push to zoom in and out).
Another five minutes will be enough to show everyone how to work the control
board. They already know how to use cassette decks and CD players.

Kids have watched enough television (unlike those poor tribesmen) to know
exactly how it’s done. Whatever else needs to be taught, they’ll teach you.
Our studio is a basement room in the village building. Though most of it
still looks like a combination of Castle Dracula and junk storage, one wall
has a gray rug hung on it. With a table in front of the rug and a couple of
home-made spotlights, we have a set that looks great on TV.

The trick to producing television seems to be to teach the kids how to use
all of the equipment as quickly as you can and then, the same night, let
them do their shows. When an audience shows up to watch, you can teach them
as well. And there is an audience. Our kids get 80 phone calls in a
half-hour trivia contest.

I find it particularly funny that I can produce TV and use a computer while
I don’t know how to drive a car. In 1962 only a few people could do the
first two and I felt completely out of things not being able to do the
latter. This century is just full of such jokes.

—————————————————————————-

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Another file downloaded from: NIRVANAnet(tm)

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From: sichase@csa2.lbl.gov (SCOTT I CHASE)
Subject: Re: Hot water
Followup-To: rec.martial-arts
Date: 25 Jul 92 06:12:10 GMT
Organization: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory – Berkeley, CA, USA
Lines: 75
Distribution: na
Message-ID:
References:
Reply-To: sichase@csa2.lbl.gov
NNTP-Posting-Host: 128.3.254.197
News-Software: VAX/VMS VNEWS 1.3-4

In article , mbaya@antioc.antioch.edu writes…
>
>and is it also true that Hot/boiling water will freeze faster than
>cold water? I know I heard this somewhere a long time ago. Why does it
>do this?
>
Yes, under some conditions. This is in the sci.physics FAQ. Here is
the appropriate text:

********************************************************************************
Item 10.

Hot Water Freezes Faster than Cold! updated 11-May-1992
———————————– original by Richard M. Mathews

You put two pails of water outside on a freezing day. One has hot
water (95 degrees C) and the other has an equal amount of colder water (50
degrees C). Which freezes first? The hot water freezes first! Why?

It is commonly argued that the hot water will take some time to
reach the initial temperature of the cold water, and then follow the same
cooling curve. So it seems at first glance difficult to believe that the
hot water freezes first. The answer lies mostly in evaporation. The effect
is definitely real and can be duplicated in your own kitchen.

Every “proof” that hot water can’t freeze faster assumes that the
state of the water can be described by a single number. Remember that
temperature is a function of position. There are also other factors
besides temperature, such as motion of the water, gas content, etc. With
these multiple parameters, any argument based on the hot water having to
pass through the initial state of the cold water before reaching the
freezing point will fall apart. The most important factor is evaporation.

The cooling of pails without lids is partly Newtonian and partly by
evaporation of the contents. The proportions depend on the walls and on
temperature. At sufficiently high temperatures evaporation is more
important. If equal masses of water are taken at two starting
temperatures, more rapid evaporation from the hotter one may diminish its
mass enough to compensate for the greater temperature range it must cover
to reach freezing. The mass lost when cooling is by evaporation is not
negligible. In one experiment, water cooling from 100C lost 16% of its mass
by 0C, and lost a further 12% on freezing, for a total loss of 26%.

The cooling effect of evaporation is twofold. First, mass is
carried off so that less needs to be cooled from then on. Also,
evaporation carries off the hottest molecules, lowering considerably the
average kinetic energy of the molecules remaining. This is why “blowing on
your soup” cools it. It encourages evaporation by removing the water vapor
above the soup.

Thus experiment and theory agree that hot water freezes faster than
cold for sufficiently high starting temperatures, if the cooling is by
evaporation. Cooling in a wooden pail or barrel is mostly by evaporation.
In fact, a wooden bucket of water starting at 100C would finish freezing in
90% of the time taken by an equal volume starting at room temperature. The
folklore on this matter may well have started a century or more ago when
wooden pails were usual. Considerable heat is transferred through the
sides of metal pails, and evaporation no longer dominates the cooling, so
the belief is unlikely to have started from correct observations after
metal pails became common.

References:
“Hot water freezes faster than cold water. Why does it do so?”,
Jearl Walker in The Amateur Scientist, Scientific American,
Vol. 237, No. 3, pp 246-257; September, 1977.

“The Freezing of Hot and Cold Water”, G.S. Kell in American
Journal of Physics, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp 564-565; May, 1969.

——————–
Scott I. Chase “The question seems to be of such a character
SICHASE@CSA2.LBL.GOV that if I should come to life after my death
and some mathematician were to tell me that it
had been definitely settled, I think I would
immediately drop dead again.” – Vandiver

EXCERPTS FROM:

Y O U N G ‘ S

D E M O N S T R A T I V E T R A N S L A T I O N

O F

S C I E N T I F I C S E C R E T S ;

O R

A C O L L E C T I O N O F A B O V E

5 0 0 U S E F U L R E C E I P T S

O N A V A R I E T Y O F S U B J E C T S

T O R O N T O

P R I N T E D B Y R O W S E L L & E L L I S,

K I N G S T R E E T E A S T

———-

1 8 6 1

304. RAILROAD SYSTEM OF HORSE TRAINING
This excellent and very simple method of horse training is nearly all
accomplished by what is called the persuader or bit; which is made as
follows: take a piece of strong rope eight or ten feet long and a quarter
of an inch thick, then part the horse’s mane in the centre, turning one
half towards the ears, and the other towards the back of the horse; next
tie the rope by one end in a hard knot that will not slip – not too
tightly – round the horse’s neck in the place at which the mane is
divided, having the knot on the right side of the neck; then pass the
loose end of the rope forwards, along the right side of the neck, into the
horse’s mouth and back along the left side of the neck to that part of the
rope which surrounds the horse’s neck, and underneath which it is passed;
than take the loose end of the rope in your hand, and you have the
persuader or bit completed. By pulling on the end which you now hold, you
draw his mouth up towards his throat, and can thereby inflict the most
excruciating torture that is possible for a horse to undergo, and the
beauty of it is, without the least injury to the animal. One pull on this
persuader is more dreaded by the horse than a whole day’s flogging with
raw-hide. In fact he cannot stand it; no matter how ugly his tricks may
be, such as kicking, balking or anything else, if you use the persuader on
him at the time, you can conquer him at once; make him as meek as a lamb,
and glad to do anything to escape the torture inflicted by the persuader.
A few times is all you will have to use it, even on the most sulky animal,
until you will see no more of his tricks, and he is completely conquered.

305. TO HALTER WILD COLTS
How to approach and halter the wildest colt of any age without danger, and
lead him quietly, is as follows: choose a large floor, that of a
wagonhouse answers well, strew it over with straw two or three inches
deep, turn your colt into it, follow him in with a good whip, shut the
door, and he will clear to the furthest corner, follow him, and whip him
well on the hips, he will clear to another corner, follow him, treat him
in the same manner, and he will soon begin to turn his head towards you,
then stop and bid him come to you, if he does not come, lay on the whip
again, being always careful not to touch him about the head or shoulders,
but always about the hips, in a short time he will come to you when you
bid him, then rub his ears, nose, neck, chest, &c., and pet him all you
can; halter and lead him about the floor; it at any time he clears from
you, pay the whip well on his hips until he comes to you again; after a
little use him the same way in a small yard, and after this you can do as
you like with him in any place.

306. HORSES WITH TENDER EARS
How to make a horse, that is afraid of his head or ears, easy to bridle or
halter, is as follows: – if your horse is very fractious and wild, you
will need to treat him according to receipt No.305, first: at all events
you will want the floor well covered with straw, then raise the left fore
leg and strap it so that your horse will stand on three legs, then tie a
strap just above his right fore foot, and standing on the left side of the
horse, holding the strap in your hand, chirp to him, and the moment he
attempts to move forwards, he is on his knees; you may then fasten the
strap to that on the left leg, or hold it in your hand, as you please;
then after the horse gets done struggling and working, rub his nose and
ears gently, and put the halter on and take it off repeatedly, to show him
that it may be done without hurting him, and in a short time he will not
mind the halter or bridle.

307. HOW TO CONTROL A VICIOUS HORSE
How to acquire the most perfect control over the most vicious and wildest
horse, in a short time, without the use of drugs or charms, is by going
according to receipts No.305 and No.306, and sometimes you may have to use
the persuader.

308. TO BREAK A WILD COLT
How to break the wildest colt in a short time, so that a boy of 14 years
old can ride or handle him in perfect safety. This is done by means of the
persuader receipts No.305 and No.306, and if the boy is to ride him, after
the horse is on his knees, as directed in receipt No.306, and the horse is
tired out by struggling, then let somebody get on his back, sit there for
a while, then move on to his shoulders, and back unto his hips, and so
work round the horse until he does not mind it, and has no fear from it.
When he has a few lessons like this, any lad may ride him in safety.

309. TO MAKE A STALLION LIE DOWN
How to make the worst stallion lie down and allow you to perform any
surgical operation on him that you wish, without the assistance of any
one. If the horse is very ugly, you may need to follow, first, receipt
No.305, and perhaps, use the persuader, but it is principally done by
receipt No.306, with this addition: when you have the horse on his knees,
you standing on his left side, and holding the strap which is attached to
his right fore foot in your hand, as taught in receipt No.306, then put a
headstall on him, and to its ring on the left side of his mouth, tie
firmly a stick about an inch and a half thick, which, let run up on the
left side of his neck, to the top of his shoulders, then tie the strap,
which is attached to the right foot, to this pole; now pull the horse over
on his left side, and you have him powerless, his fore feet are drawn up,
and on account of the pole he cannot raise his head, so that you have
perfect control over him to do as you please.

310. PULLING AT THE HALTER
To break a horse from pulling at the halter. This is done by means of the
persuader; if he pulls once on this, he will never try it again.

311. WILD STALLIONS
How to break the wildest stallion in a short time, so that a boy can lead
him in perfect safety. This is done by putting the horse through a regular
course of training, according to receipts No.305 and No.306, and the use
of the persuader.

312. BALKY HORSES
How to make the worst of balky horses pull true. Whenever your horse
balks, if you there and then, openly and publicly make use of the
persuader, and jerk him well with it, he will be glad to go, and in a
short time you will have to use it no more; but as long as this system is
kept secret, and when a horse balks, you do not then use the persuader,
you will never break the horse from balking.

313. SHOEING HORSES
How to make a horse stand to be shod. This is accomplished by having the
persuader fitted on, and whenever the horse makes an attempt to be ugly,
pull on the persuader, and he will very soon be glad to stand as quiet as
a lamb.

314. “WHOA”
How to make a horse understand the word “whoa” so perfectly, that he will
always stop when spoken to, no matter what may occur to frighten him. This
is done by having the persuader fitted on, and whenever you sat “whoa”, in
a loud and stern tone of voice, pull on the persuader, and it is
impossible for a horse to fear or dread anything else as much as this, he
will stop instantly, no matter what may occur to frighten him.

315. THROWING
How to break a horse off the habit of throwing his rider. This is
accomplished by means of the persuader, and receipt No.308.

316. SCARING
How to break a horse off scaring at umbrellas or buffalo robes, so that
you may toss them at him without disturbing him. To accomplish this you
want to get the horse on his knees, according to receipt No.306; then
bring your robes and umbrellas near him, let him smell them, toss them at
him, and throw them over his head carefully, and so continue to work,
showing him that they do not harm him, until all fear of them is lost.

317. KICKING HORSES
How to break the worst class of kicking horses. To accomplish this, you
will want to put the horse through a regular course of training, according
to this system, until you have him well conquered; then keep the persuader
on, and if he should ever attempt to kick, at that moment jerk well on the
persuader, and he will think of everything but kicking; when he attempts
it a few times, and you check him in this manner, he will quit it
altogether.

318. TO BIT A HORSE
How to bit a horse more perfectly, in ten minutes, at a cost of ten cents,
that can be done with any other bit and rig, at a cost of five to ten
dollars. This bit is what is called the persuader, and it is the best bit
that ever was used for bitting colts. It puts a most beautiful curve in
the neck, and leaves the colt at ease while wearing it. When it is used
for this purpose, the end that you hold in your hand in other cases, is
now to be tied to that part of the persuader which surrounds the neck of
the horse or colt.

319. JOCKEY TRICKS – TO PRODUCE FOUNDER
How to make a horse appear as if he was badly foundered in one night’s
time. Take a fine wire, or any substitute, and fasten it tightly round the
castor tit, the back side of the pasture joint at night; smooth the hair
down nicely over it, and by morning he will walk as stiff as any foundered
horse.

320. FOOD AND STARVATION
How to make a horse stand by his food and starve to death. Grease the
front teeth and roof of the mouth with common beef-tallow, and he will not
eat until you wash it out; this, in conjunction with the above, will
consummate a complete founder.

321. GLANDERS
How to make a horse appear as if he had the glanders, in one night’s time.
This is done by melting fresh butter and pouring it into his ears, not too
hot.

322. BALKING
How to make a true pulling horse balk. Take tincture of cantharides 1 oz.,
and corrosive sublimate 1 drachm; mix and bathe his shoulders at night.

323. TO COVER UP HEAVES
How to cover up the heaves so effectually, that you may work, ride, or run
him, and they cannot be detected. This will last from twelve to
twenty-four hours, long enough to trade off. Drench the horse with
one-fourth pound of common bird shot, and he will not heave until they
pass through him.

324. THE COUNTENANCE
How to put a young countenance on a horse. Make a small incision near the
sunk place over the eye, insert the point of a blow-pipe or goose-quill,
and blow it up; close the external wound with thread, and it is done.

325. THE CRIB
How to cure a horse of the crib, or sucking wind; saw between the upper
front teeth.

326 QUESTIONS
To teach a horse to answer questions. This is done by pricking him with a
pin; for instance, you may say to the horse, is your name Tom ? and at
that moment prick him with a pin so that he will squeal; then ask him is
your name Sam ? don’t prick him and he will not squeal. Then say again is
your name Tom, prick him again, and he will squeal; so continue, and after
a time he will squeal without being pricked when you ask him the first
question, &c.

327. TO NERVE A HORSE
How to nerve a horse that is lame. Make a small incision about half way
from the knee to the joint on the outside of the leg, and at the back part
of the shin bone; you will find a small white tendon or cord; cut it off
and close the external wound with a stick, and he will walk off on the
hardest pavement, and not lame a particle.

328. A HORSE’S AGE
The following rules will enable any man to ascertain with tolerable
certainty the age of any horse. Every horse has six teeth above and six
below; before he arrives at the age of three he sheds his two middle teeth
by the young teeth rising and shoving the old ones out of their place.
When he arrives at the age of three, he sheds one more on each side of the
middle teeth; when four years old he sheds two corner and the last of his
fore teeth; between four and five he cuts his under tusks, and when five
will cut his upper tusks, and have a mouth full and complete, and the
teeth will have hollows of a very dark brown colour. At six years old the
grooves and hollows in a horse’s mouth will begin to fill up a little and
their tusks have their full growth, with their points sharp, and a little
concave. At seven years old the grooves and hollows will be pretty well
filled below. At eight the whole of the hollows and groves are filled up,
and you see the appearance of what is termed smooth below. At nine years
old, the point of the tusk is worn off, and the part that was concave
begins to fill up and become rounded. Between nine and ten years of age a
horse generally looses the marks of the mouth. After nine years old a
wrinkle comes on the eyelid at the upper corner of the lower lid, and
every year thereafter he has one well defined wrinkle for each year over
nine. If, for instance, a horse has three wrinkles, he is twelve; if four,
he is thirteen, &c.

329. HEAD, NECK OR LUNGS
How to tell by looking at a horse whether there is any thing the matter
with his head, neck or lungs. A knowledge of this is as useful as it is
simple. If there is nothing the matter with the head, neck or lungs of a
horse, the nostrils will have a clean, healthy, and bright appearance, but
if there is, they have always a dirty, muddy, or in some way an unhealthy
appearance.

330. PROF. MANDIE’S HORSE TAMING
Take finely grated horse caster, or the warty excrescence from the horse’s
leg, oils of rhodium, and cumin, keep these in separate bottles well
corked; put some of the oil of cumin on your hand and approach the horse
on the windy side that he may smell it; he will then move towards you,
then rub some of the cumin on his nose; give him a little of the castor on
sugar, salt, or any thing he likes, and get 8 or 10 drops of the oil of
rhodium on the point of his tongue; you can then get him to do any thing
you please. Follow up your advantage by all the kindness and attention
possible towards the animal, and your control is certain. This is only fit
for nervous horses; but the railroad system is certain. In all kinds of
ugly horses it is the best of methods.

331. BOTTS IN HORSES
This may be relied on as a certain and safe remedy for botts in horses.
When the horse is attacked, pound some common glass very fine, sift it
through a fine piece of muslin, take a tablespoonful, put it inside a ball
of dough, (not mixed with the dough,) then put it down the horse’s throat,
and in from two to five minutes the horse will get up and feel and will be
well. The moment the glass touches the botts though they may have eaten
their way into the coats of the stomach, so that but a small portion is
exposed, they will let go their hold, will pucker up and be driven off by
the bowels. This remedy is perfectly safe, and is the only certain cure
for botts under the sun. Try it.

332. RING BONE AND SPAVIN
Take of sweet oil, 4 oz.; spirits of turpentine, 2 ozs.; oil if stone, 1/2
oz. Mix and apply three times a day. If the horse is over four years old,
or in any case where there is not sufficient, in addition to it, you will
fit a bar of lead just above it, wiring the ends together, so it
constantly wears upon the enlargement, and the two together, will cure
nine cases out of every ten in six weeks.

333. POLL EVIL AND FISTULA
Take 1 lb. common potash dissolved in 1/2 pint of water. Add 1/2 oz.
extract of belladona and 1 oz. gum-arabic dissolved in a little water;
work all into a paste with wheat flour, and box or bottle up tight. In
applying this, the place should be well cleansed with soap-suds, (castile
soap is best) then tallow should be applied all around by the paste
dissolving and running over it. Now this paste must be pressed to the
bottom of all the orifices; if very deep it must be made sufficiently thin
to inject by means of a small syringe, and repeated once in two days,
until the callous pipes, and hard fibrous base around the poll evil, or
fistula, is completely destroyed. Sometimes one application has cured
cases of this kind, but it will generally require two or three. If the
horse cannot be kept up, you will put a piece of oiled cloth over the
place. The advantage of this caustic over all others is that less pain and
inflammation is induced. The sores may be cured by the following or
Sloan’s ointment: ceder oil is to be applied to the tendons, to prevent
them stiffening, in pole evil, or other cases.

334. DeGRAY, OR SLOAN’S HORSE OINTMENT
Take of rosin 4 oz., lard 8 oz., honey 2 oz., mix and melt slowly, gently
bring it to a boil, and as it begins to boil slowly, add a little less
than a pint of spirits of turpentine, stirring all the time it is being
added, then remove from the stove, and stir till cool. This is an
extraordinary ointment for bruses in flesh or hoof, broken knees, galled
backs, bites, cracked heels, &c. or when a hoirse is gelded, to heal and
keep away flies.

335. NERVE AND BONE LINIMENT
Take of beef’s gall 1 quart, alcohol 1 pint, volatile liniment 1 lb.,
spirits of turpentine 1 lb., oil of origanum 4 oz., aqua ammonia 4 oz.,
tincture of cayenne 1/2 pint, oil of amber 3 oz., tincture of spanish fly
6 oz., mix and shake well. Uses too well known to need description.

336. TO CURE FOUNDERS IN 24 HOURS
Boil or steam oat straw for half an hour, then wrap it round the horses
legs while quite hot, cover up with wet woollen rags to keep in the steam:
in six hours renew the application. Take 1 gallon of blood from the neck
vein, and give a quart of linseed oil. He may be worked next day.

337. TO CURE COLIC IN TEN MINUTES
Bleed freely at the horse’s mouth, and take 1 oz. of oil of juniper, 1 oz.
of laudanum, and 2 ozs. of sweet spirits of nitre. Mix in a pint of gruel,
and drench him with it.

338. GARGLING OIL
Take of tanner’s oil 1 quart, oil of vitriol 2 oz., spirits of turpentine
1 oz. Mix all together, leave the bottles open till it stops working, then
it is ready for use.

339. MERCHANT’S GARGLING OIL
Take of linseed oil 2 1/2 galls., spirits of turpentine 2 1/2 galls.,
western petroleum 1 gall., liquor potass 8 oz., sap green 1 oz., mix all
together, and it is ready for use.

340. PURGING BALLS
Take of aloes, 3 oz.; anise seed, 3 oz.; pulverise and mix with castile
soap. This makes one ball for a horse.

341. URINE BALLS
Take of white resin, 1/2 lb.; castile soap, 1/2 lb.; venice turpentine,
1/2 pint; mix well together; make the balls the size of butternuts. Give
the horse three the first day, two the second day, and one the third day.

342. FOR THE HEAVES
Give the horse 1/2 drachm of nitric acid, in a pint of sweet milk. Repeat
once in two days, once in three days, and once in four days. This receipt
is highly prized, and is good; but the best remedy for heaves is so simple
that scarcely any one will try it; it is to take fresh sumack tops, break
two or three bunches of them up in the horse’s feed, three times a day.
This will actually cure the heaves unless, they are very bad.

343 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS
The symptoms of inflammation of the lungs in the horse is as follows: – it
is usually ushered in by a shivering fit, the horse is cold all over,
reaction soon takes place, the body becomes warmer, and the extremities
extremely cold. The breathing is quick, he refuses to lie down. If when
wearied out, he lies down, it is but for a moment.
Treatment – This may be commenced by a good bleeding, which is to be
followed by a drachm of emetic tartar, and three drachms of nitre, every
eight hours, rubbing the extremities, and giving bran-mashes; throw warm
blankets over the animal, hanging down to the floor, and place vessels of
hot water in which put hot stones or bricks, and sweat freely, also, give
one scruple of opium, and two of calomel, twice a day. The sides of the
chest may be thoroughly blistered. This is the proper treatment.

344. STOMACH AND BOWELS
Inflammation of the stomach and bowels in the horse, resembles colic in
its symptoms, except in colic the pains pass off at times, and return
again, whereas in inflammation, the pain is constant, and the animal is
never easy; after a time the eye acquires a wild haggard, unnatural stare,
and the pupil, or dark spot in the eye, dilates.
Treatment – Take away, at once, six or eight quarts of blood, and repeat
the bleeding if the pain returns. Follow the bleeding by one scruple of
opium, and two of calomel, twice a day; also blister the sides of the
chest; give him bran mash and purging balls, (Receipt No. 340).

345. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS
The principal symptoms of inflammation of the kidneys in the horse, is,
pressure on the loins elicit symptoms of pain, the breathing is hurried,
there is a constant desire to void urine, although passed in small
quantities, highly coloured, and sometimes tinged with blood.
Treatment – This is blood letting, active purging, mustard poultices as
near the kidneys as possible, and the horse warmly clothed, &c., as in
other inflammations.

346. CONDITION POWDERS
Take of flax-seed meal 2 lbs., finygreek meal 2 lbs., liver antimony 1/2
lb., and nitre 1/2 lb., mix well; give a tablespoon for three days and
omit three days, &c.

347. FOR BONE SPAVIN
Take of cantharides 2 oz., strong mercurial ointment 4 oz., oil of
turpentine 4 oz., iodine 3 oz., mix all with a sufficiency of lard to make
a thin ointment; apply to the spavin only once a day until it bursts; then
oil it with sweet oil until healed. If the bunch is not then removed,
apply it again, and again if necessary, which is seldom the case.

348. TO MAKE A HORSE FOLLOW YOU
The horse is treated in the same manner as mentioned in the receipt NO.
305, always being careful to whip him on the hips. When he will follow you
round the barn floor, then treat him in the same manner in a yard, and
when he follows you here, he will any place.

349. COLTS CHEWING HALTERS
Take scab from the wart on the inside of the leg, rub the halter
thoroughly with it, and they will not be found chewing their halters very
soon.

350 A. HORSES JUMPING FENCES
Pass a small and strong cord around his body just behind his shoulders,
and tie the halter to this cord between his forelegs, so as to leave the
distance about two feet from the cord to his head; if then he attempts to
jump, he is compelled to throw his head forward, which draws hard on the
cord, and causes it to cut into his back, and he instantly desists. The
cord should not be more than a quarter of an inch in diameter.

350 B. BLAZE OR STAR
When we have a pair of horses that match well in every respect, except
that one has a blaze or star on the face, it becomes very interesting and
important to know how to make their faces match. Take a piece of oznaburgs
the size you want the star or blaze; spread it with warm pitch and apply
it to the horses face; let it remain two or three days, by which time it
will bring off the hair clean, and make the part a little tender; then
take of elixor vitriol a small quantity, anoint the part two or three
times; or, take of a very common weed called asmart, a small handfull,
bruise it, and add to it about a gill of water, use it as a wash until the
face gets well, when the hair will grow out entirely white.

351. BLACK SPOTS
To spot a white horse with black spots, take litharge 3 oz., quick lime 6
oz., beat fine and mix together; put it into a pan and pour a sharp ley
over it; then boil it and you will have a fat substance swim on top, with
which anoint the horse in such places as you design to have black, and it
will turn to the colour immediately.

352. INFLUENZA OR HORSE-AIL
The first symptom is debility. The horse appears dumpish, refuses to eat,
mouth hot, in six or twelve hours the appetite diminishes, legs and
eyelids swell. This disease may end in chronic cough, a bad discharge from
the nose, and in inveterate cases in glanders.
Treatment – Keep the horse on light food, as mashes, scalded shorts, green
grass, &c., and if he is very plethoric, he should be half starved and
bled from the mouth. If the throat is sore, rub it with warm vinegar and
salt, or blister; walk him a little for exercise, administer the
following: oil of croton, 5 drops; nitrate of potassa 4 to 6 drachms;
potassio-tartrate of antimony, 1 drachm; spirit of nitric ether, 4 drachms
to 1 oz; solution of acetate of ammonia 2 to 4 ozs.; and warm water
sufficient to make a draught; and when the head is much affected, add a
drachm of camphor. This draught may be administered once and sometimes
twice a day, the croton oil being omitted after the first dose; after the
first day, 2 drachms of powdered gentian may be added.

353. STRANGLES OR HORSE DISTEMPER
Symptoms – A discharge from the nostrils, with a swelling under the
throat, a disinclination to eat. Thirst, but after a gulp or two the horse
ceases to drink. In attempting to swallow, a convulsive cough comes on;
mouth hot and tongue coated with a white fur. The tumor under the jaw soon
fills the whole space, and is evidently one uniform body, and may thus be
distinguished from glanders or the enlarged glands of catarrh.
Treatment – Blister over the tumor at once; when the glands remain hard
and do not suppurate, it may lead to glanders, in which case rub it with
iodine ointment, and give internally, hydriodate of potash in daily doses
of 10 to 40 grains, combined with gentian and ginger. As soon as the
swelling is fit, lance it freely and apply a linseed poultice; give bran
mashes, fresh grass, &c.

354. STAGGERS
Symptoms – Giddiness, he may fall down, or suddenly turn several times
round first; he may be quiet, or struggle violently.
Treatment – If the horse be full and well fed, take 3 or 4 quarts of blood
at once; cease using him for a time, and give him an occasional physic
ball or powdered aloes 6 drachms and a little in honey.

355. GREEN OINTMENT
Take of lard, 6 lbs., put into a ten gallon kettle; add 2 gallons of
water; cut jimpson seeds and fill them in, and cook from 4 to 6 hours
slowly, till all the water is gone; then put into jars, and add to each
pound of ointment one ounce of turpentine. Good for galls, cuts,
scratches, &c.

356. HOOF EVIL OR THRUSH GREASE HEELS
Bleed and physic, and poultice the feet with boiled turnips and some
finely ground charcoal at night, for two or three nights; then wash the
feet clean with castile soap and soft water, and apply the blue ointment
every day; keep the horse on a floor and he will be well in 12 days.

357. BLUE OINTMENT
Take the ointment of rosin, 4 ozs; finely ground verdigris, 1/2 oz;
turpentine, 2 oz; mutton tallow, 2 lbs; oil of origanum, 1/2 oz; tincture
of iodine, 1/2 oz. Mix all together. This is one of the best medicines
that can be made for scratches, hoof-evil, and cuts, and is good to apply
on fistula after the rowels have been taken out. It is as good for human
as horse flesh.

358. HOOF BOUND OR TENDER FEET
Never have the feet spread at the heels, nor rasped about the nail holes;
use the liquid, and apply it according to directions. For hoof bound or
tender feet, apply it all around the top of the hoof down one inch every
day. First have a stiff shoe on the foot, and cleanse the cut or cork.
Never cut or burn for it.

359. HOOF LIQUID
Take of linseed or neatsfoot oil, 1/2 a pint; turpentine, 4 oz; oil of
tar, 6 oz; origanum, 3 oz; mix and shake well together.

360. HOOF AIL
Apply blue vitriol, and put on a tarred rag to keep out the dirt.

361. BIG, OR MILK LEG
Apply the liquid blister every there hours until it blisters; then in six
hours grease with soft oil of any kind; then in eight days wash the part
clean, and apply it again. Repeat it there or four times, then use the
iodine ointment. If this does not remove it all, apply the ringbone and
spavin medicine, this will remove it all.

362. IODINE OINTMENT
Get 1oz. of the grease iodine, put in 1 pint of alcohol; let this stand in
the sun two days, and you have the tincture of iodine. Take 2oz. of the
tincture and 1/2lb. of lard; mix well, and you have the iodine ointment.

363. SPRAIN IN THE STIFLE
Symptoms – The horse holds up his foot, moans when moved, swells in the
stifle. This is what is called stifling; there is no such thing as this
joint getting out of place.
Treatment – Bleed two gallons, foment the stifle with hot water, rub it
dry, then bathe it well with the general liniment every morning and night,
give him mash, and he will soon be well. Never allow any stifle-shoe or
cord on the foot or leg.

364. GENERAL LINIMENT
Take of turpentine, 1/2 pint; linseed oil, 1/2 pint; aqua-ammonia, 4 oz.;
tincture of iodine, 1 oz.; shake all well together. This is used for
different things spoken of in the different receipts, sores or swellings,
sprains, &c.

365. LIQUID BLISTER
Take of alcohol, 1 pint; turpentine, 1/2 pint; aqua-ammonia, 4 oz.; oil of
origanum, 1 oz.; mix, apply this as spoken of, every three hours until it
blisters.

366. TO CURE CORNS
Take of the shoe, cut out the corns, and drop in a few drops of muriatic
acid, then make the shoes so they will not bear on the part affected.
Apply the hoof liquid to the hoof to remove the fever. This is a sure cure
for corns in horses.

367. WATER FARCY, OR DROPSY
This is a swelling along under the chest, and forward to the breast;
bleed, rowel in the breast and along the swelling, six inches apart, apply
the general liniment to the swelling, move the rowels every day, let them
stay in until the swelling goes down. Give soft food, mashes, with the
cleansing powder in them.

368. CLEANSING POWDER
This is to be used when the blood is out of order. It is good to restore
lost appetite, good for yellow water, whenever it is to be used it is
spoken of in the receipts. Take of good ginger 1 lb., powdered gentian
4oz., crude antimony 1/2 oz., mix well together. Give one large spoonful
every day in wet food. This is perfectly safe.

369. POLL EVIL
Cure before it breaks, run a rowel or seaton from the lower part of the
top through the centre of the enlargement, then make the following lotion.
Take of sal-ammoniac 2 oz., spirts of turpentine 1/2 a pint, linseed oil 4
oz., and spirts of tar 4 oz., shake well, and apply it all over the
swelling every other day. Let the seaton stay in until all the swelling is
gone down, move it every day, and when all is gone throw it out. Bleed
when you first open it, and keep the part clean.

370. GLANDERS
Bleed copiously, put a rowel or seaton of polk root between the jaw and
breast, put tar thoroughly up the nostrils twice a day. This is the best
remedy ever in use.

371. FRESH WOUNDS
If there is an artery cut, tie it if possible; if not possible, or if
there is much bleeding without the separation of an artery, apply the
following wash: nitrate of silver 4 grains, soft water 1 oz., wet the
wound with this, then draw the edges together by stitches one inch apart,
then wash clean, and if any swelling in twenty-four hours, bleed and apply
the blue ointment, or any of the liniments spoken of, Keep the bowels
open.

372 THE LIVER
In disease of the liver or yellow water, give the following ball every
morning until it operates upon the bowels. Take of aloes 7 drachms,
calomel 1 drachm, ginger 4 drachms, and molassas enough to make it into a
ball, wrap it in a paper and give it; give scalded bran and oats, grass if
it can be got; when his bowels have moved, stop the physic, and give 1 oz.
spirits of camphor in half a pint of water, every morning, for twelve
days, rowel in the breast, and give a few doses of cleansing powder. Turn
him out.

373. BALLS FOR WORMS IN HORSES
Take of barbadose aloes 6 drachms, powdered ginger 1 1/2 oz., oil of
wormwood 20 drops, powdered natron 2 drachms, and molassas to form a ball.

374. BALLS FOR HIDE BOUND
Take of barbadose aloes 1 oz., castile soap 9 drachms, and ginger 6
drachms. Make into a ball.

375. HEALING OINTMENT
Take of lard 5 parts, rosin 1 part, melt them together; when they begin to
get cool add two parts of calamine powder, stirring well till cool. If the
wound is unhealthy add a little turpentine.

376. GALLS ON HORSES
Bathe the parts affected with spirits saturated with alum.

377. GRUBS IN HORSES
Take of red precipitate a teaspoonful, form into a ball, repeat if
necessary in 30 minutes.

378. STIFF SHOULDERS OR SWEENEY
Rowel from the top of the shoulder blade down as far as there is no
pealing. First cut through the skin, and then two thin fibres or
strippings, use the blunt needle, move it back and forwards five or six
inches, draw in a tape or seaton, and the next morning wet it with
tincture of cantharides, do this every other day, move them every day,
wash the part clean, let the tape stay in until the matter changes to
blood, this is for both diseases. Let him run out if possible. He will be
well in six or eight weeks. If for sweeney you may work him all the time.

379. SICK STOMACH IN HORSES
Bleed half a gallon, then if he will eat a mash give him one, give no hay,
then give him 1/2 oz. of rhubarb every night until it moves his bowels,
then take of gentian root 4 oz., fenu-greek 2 oz., nitre 1/2 oz., mix and
give a large spoonful every day. Do not give him too much to eat when his
appetite returns.

380. LUNG FEVER
Bleed four gallons from the neck vein, and take 1 oz. of aquanite, add to
it half a gallon of cold water, drench him with a gill of it every three
hours, drench him over the lungs, then give him water to drink that hay
has been boiled in, and to each gallon of it add 1 oz. of gum-arabic, and
1/2 oz. of spirits of nitre; give this every four hours; foment and rub
the legs with alcohol and camphor, until they get warm; do not move the
horse. Keep him in open stall if hot weather.

381. EYE WASH FOR HORSES
Take of sugar of lead, 2 drachms; white vitriol, 1 drachm; and soft water,
1 quart; mix and dissolve; wash the eyes out well every morning, having
first washed then well with cold water, continue this for three or four
weeks; and then, if the eyes are not much better, bleed and give a mild
physic. The horse should be kept on low diet, and not over heated or
worked too hard. Scalded shorts or oats are good.

382. MANGE AND SURFEIT
Bleed and physic, then take sulphur, 1/2 lb.; and lard, 2 lbs.; mix well;
grease the part affected every three or four days; stand the horse in the
sun until it dries in; give him a few doses of the cleansing powder.

383. CONTRACTION OF THE NECK
If it is taken in the first stages, bleed from the neck 2 galls.; then
ferment or bathe the part well with hot water; rub it dry, and apply the
general lineament every day, two or three times; this will cure if it is
of long standing. Then blister all along the part affected with the liquid
blister. Do this every three weeks until he is well, and rub with the
white ointment, Do not work the horse till well.

384. WHITE OINTMENT
For rheumatism, sprains, burns, swelling, bruises, or any inflammation on
man or beast, chapped hands or lips, black eyes, or any kind of bruises.
Take of fresh butter 2 lbs.; tincture of iodine, 1/2 oz.; oil of origanum,
2 ozs.; mix well for fifteen minutes, and it is fit for use; apply it
every night; rub it in well with your hand.

385. OLD HORSES YOUNG
Drops to make old horses as lively as young. Take the tincture of
assafoetida, 1 oz.; tincture of cantharides, 1 oz.; antimony, 2 oz.;
fenugreek, 1 oz.; and fourth proof brandy, 1/2 gal.; mix all and let stand
ten or twelve days; then give ten drops in a pail, or one gallon, of
water.

386. RHEUMATIC LINEAMENT
Take of alcohol, 1/2 pint; oil of origanum, 1/2 oz.; cayenne pepper, 1/2
oz.; gum myrrh, 1/2 oz.; and lobelia, 1 teaspoonful; mix and let stand one
day; then bathe the part affected.

387. TO KILL LICE ON CATTLE
Take of buttermilk, 1 quart; salt, 1/3 pint; mix and dissolve; pour this
along the back, letting it run down each side; if this should ever fail
use the water in which potatoes have been boiled, in the same way, it will
be effectual.

388. HORSES FROM FIRE
The difficulty of getting horses from burning stables is well known. The
remedy is to blindfold them perfectly, and by gentle usage, they may be
easily led out. If you like you may also throw the harness upon them.

389. SNOW BALLS
To prevent snow balls on horses’ feet clean their hoofs well, and rub with
soft soap before going out in the snow.
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Another text file from Stonehenge BBS [415] 479-8328
============================================================================

THE CAT IN HISTORY

R. Roger Breton
Nancy J Creek

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Domestic Cats

Some 20,000 or so years ago the dog was domesticated. While there is,
of course, no way to know the exact mechanism of domestication, the
following is a possible, even probable, scenario.

While out hunting, a man comes across a wolf cub. Being not
especially vicious, the cub is taken home alive to be eaten later
(living food doesn’t spoil). The cub, being too young and
inexperienced to be afraid, does cub things, which amuses the man and
his family, so he lets it live for a while longer.

The cub grows into a wolf and, being a wolf, looks upon the people as
its pack. It quickly learns to assist in the hunt, yielding its
freshly-caught prey to its human packmaster. Soon, everybody wants a
tame wolf to help with the hunting.

Alternately, or in addition, some other animal, perhaps even another
wolf, comes around looking for a quick meal of man-cub, and is driven
off by the tame wolf, who is, of course, protecting its pack. Soon
everybody wants a tame wolf to protect the kids. Its fate is sealed,
the tame wolf is now a dog and is forever linked with mankind.

The domestication of the cat was not so easily accomplished as that of
the dog, as the cat is not a pack animal and does not have built-in
co-operative instincts. The cat was first domesticated some 5000
years ago. This took place in the valley of the Nile, in what is now
Sudan but was then Upper Egypt. The actual mechanics of domestication
are remarkably simple–in fact, it has recurred many times throughout
Africa and southwestern Asia over the millennia.

The people of the area had given up the nomadic lifestyle of their
ancestors, learned to till the soil, and settled into agrarian
communities. Since these communities depended for their very
existence upon their crops, which could only be harvested once or
twice a year, a means of storing them between harvests had to be
found. Early on, this consisted merely of keeping grain in baskets.
This attracted mice, rats, and other vermin, who quickly learned to
adapt to man’s ways in order to get a free meal. An abundance of
vermin attracted the local lesser cat, the African Wildcat, who could
also appreciate an easy meal.

It didn’t take much observation to see that the vermin ate the grain,
which was undesirable, and the cats ate the vermin, which was
desirable. People started encouraging the cats to stick around by
leaving out the odd fishhead or other scrap, a practice of which the
cats were fond. Since they had a ready source of food (mice, rats and

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The Cat in History Page 1

fishheads), no threat from the people (nobody chased or yelled at cat,
lest it leave and the vermin increase), and an absence of enemies
(various cat-eating creatures stayed away because of the men), the
cats moved in on a permanent basis.

Being a naturally calm species, the African Wildcat quickly adapted to
people, allowing itself to at first be approached, then petted, and
eventually to be held. The cat is a passionate animal, and rewarded
all that caressing and holding with love and affection in kind.

In addition to demonstrating its love by snuggling and acting
endearingly (do not even dogs do so?) a cat purred. Purring is a
unique and amazing phenomenon, both in its inception and in the
reactions it produces. A farmer could work all day in the fields and
come home tired to the bone. The cat would jump onto his lap and
proceed to snuggle and purr, which would promptly drive the fatigue
out of his soul. We’re talking direct massage of the psyche here!
Let a cat snuggle and purr before bedtime and you’ll sleep twice as
deeply.

The cat sleeps in short periods throughout the day, rather than a
single long period like people and dogs, and awakens quickly. It is
thus ready to do its job around the clock.

It is also especially alert and active at night, when the mice are
awake and the dogs are asleep. It often assisted the family dog by
alerting it to any strange thing than may go bump in the night. It
sees and hears far better than the dog, especially at night, and does
get along and co-operate with its canine companion.

Unlike the dog the cat is clean. It buries its wastes outside, away
from its den (the people’s house), so as not to attract predators or
other cats.

All these desirable features and factors have caused the cat to become
a permanent member of human society as both a helpmate and companion.
The cat is here to stay.

Divine Cats

Before too long these ancient Egyptians had progressed from villages
into cities, and from a simple nature-oriented pantheism led by the
village shaman into a hyper-complex system of gods and goddesses with
a set of elaborate rituals carefully governed by a priest class. The
kingship secured itself, as has often been done, by claiming a right
to rule as ordained by the gods. This divine right of kings
eventually gave way to a royal demigodhood, then a full godhood: the
king became Pharaoh, the god-king. Since Pharaoh was one of their
own, this concept was strongly encouraged by the priests. Egypt had
become a firmly entrenched theocracy.

Since the food requirements of a city are much greater than those of a
village, grain was confiscated as taxes and stored in the royal
granaries. These granaries were simply windowless storage buildings

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The Cat in History Page 2

and, like all buildings, were not secure against nature’s smaller
creatures: our old friends the mice and rats. With all that grain
piled in such great heaps, the vermin had a field day and bred like
rabbits only wish they could. This became such a problem that Pharaoh
needed all the cats he could muster to combat the vermin, so he
appropriated all the cats in the land.

Taking people’s cats, especially beloved cats, posed a problem that
even Pharoah didn’t want to face. Being divine himself, presumably
with divine wisdom, he solved this problem by leaving all the cats
where they were but making them demigods: all the cats in Egypt, all
at once. There were suddenly tens of thousands of small, furry,
purring divinities running around. As with all of man’s lunacies, we
feel certain that the cats ignored the whole thing.

Of course, a mere human could not own a demigod, only a god could, and
who was the only god around? Our friend, Pharoah, that’s who. A
human could, though, provide a home and food for a demigod, and this
they did, bringing them to their assigned granary each night and
picking them up each morning (an ideal job for number three or four
son or daughter). As compensation for this service, they would
receive a tax credit. (They got to claim their cats as dependents!
Makes one wonder how much cat-sharing took place on their version of
April 15th!)

Since all cats were the property of divine Pharaoh, to kill or injure
one, even by accident, was a capital crime. If a house caught fire,
the cats were saved first, then, if there was time, the people.
People were, after all, only human.

Whenever a cat died in the normal course of events, the whole of its
human household went into elaborate ritualistic mourning, often
shaving off their eyebrows, chanting, pounding their breasts, and
demonstrating other outward signs of grief at their loss. The body of
the cat had to be carefully wrapped in linen and brought to the
priests, who would check it carefully to be certain its death was
natural. When the priests were done, the body was taken to the
embalmers, who made a cat mummy of it. There were far more cat
mummies than people mummies in Egypt: over 300,000 of them were found
in the diggings at Beni-Hassan alone.

The ritualism and mythology concerning the cat spread far beyond their
vermin-control capabilities. The people soon believed (helped, no
doubt, by the priests) that the cats had a direct influence upon
health, marriage, fortune, and other non-cat aspects of life. The
goddess of life and family was Bast, who had a woman’s body and a
cat’s head. In her left hand, Bast was often depicted as holding an
amulet of the all-seeing sacred eye, the utchat, believed to have
magical powers.

The utchat itself was everywhere in society: as decoration, in home
shrines, worn as jewelry, etc. It was often depicted as being the eye
of a cat, sometimes with cats within the eye itself. An utchat at the
door kept a watchful eye out for thieves and vandals, protecting the

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The Cat in History Page 3

home. An utchat over the lintel kept a watchful eye over all who
dwelt within, preserving them from disease and accident. An utchat
worn around the neck kept its watchful eye upon the road and protected
travelers from harm. An utchat showing a mother cat with many kittens
given as a wedding present meant many children. The beliefs were
legion (so were the utchat makers).

To remove one of the divine cats from Egypt was to steal from Pharaoh,
a capital crime. As a result, it took a while before many
domesticated cats turned up elsewhere in the Near East.

The exceptions to this were ships’ cats: sailors have always been
practical people. The Nile bargemen kept cats aboard for the same
reason the priests wanted cats at the granaries, to kill the vermin.
The bargemen would offload their wares to the Phoenician and other
seagoing traders at the mouth of the Nile, sometimes offloading a
kitten or three at the same time (for the properly devout
consideration, of course). In this manner the domestic cat slowly
spread by sea to the various countries bordering the Mediterranean,
and thence by overland caravan to the north and east.

In a similar manner, the caravans crossing the strip of desert
separating the Nile from the Red Sea often carried cats with them,
many of whose kittens somehow found their way to the dhows of the
Indus traders. These Indus traders took the cats back to India, where
they were traded eastward into Burma and Siam and northward into
China.

It wasn’t until the Persian, Greek and Roman conquests, however, that
Egypt finally openly yielded her most valuable treasure, and the
African Wildcat, now changed slightly into an early Domesticated Cat,
spread over the Empires of Darius, Alexander and Caesar.

There is some evidence that an independent domestication may have
taken place in the valley of the Indus, by similar means to that in
Egypt (without the divinity aspects), but as we’re still speaking of
an offshoot of felis sylvestris, the basic wildcat, it would have
merged with the earlier domestication and vanished as a distinct
entity as soon as Egyptian cats were spread over the trade routes.

The western world now had housecats, alleycats, working cats, and
just-plain cats everywhere. Commerce over the trade routes to china
and India soon spread cats in quantity to the rest of the Known World.
Cats were off and running.

As a momentary aside, the word for cat in ancient Egypt was “mau,”
their version of “meow,” the universal cat-word. By the time the
domesticated cats left Egypt the utchat was completely cat-oriented,
often cat-shaped, and irrevocably cat-linked. From the word utchat we
get the vast majority of the Indo-European names for the cat: cat,
chat, cattus, gatus, gatous, gato, katt, katte, kitte, kitty, etc.
Similarly, the cat-goddess Bast was Pasht in later Egyptian (during
the times of the ptolemaic kings). From pasht we get the remaining
Indo-European names for the cat: pasht, past, pushd, pusst, puss,

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The Cat in History Page 4

pussy, etc.

Diabolical Cats

Those were the Golden Days in the history of catdom. Everybody wanted
his own cat, if not cats, to keep vermin at bay. Cats rapidly spread
throughout the cities and villages, becoming an essential part of
everyday life. This was to be their downfall.

The tendency of cats to be so useful in eliminating vermin made them
desirable to the farmer, the merchant, and the homeowner. The
tendency of cats to become cats made them desirable to people in
general. The tendency of cats to do their own thing made them
mysterious. People being what they are, cats soon became a part of
the everyday ritual, then a part of the religious ritual, then the
center of various cat cults. Cats were again worshiped, though not to
the same degree they had been in Egypt, and certainly not by
everybody.

During the early middle ages, the Norse goddess Freya was the closest
thing to a cat goddess among the Europeans. She had two huge cats
pulling her wain, and was constantly surrounded by cats. She became
irrevocably linked with our furry friends, and her worship contained
many cat-oriented rituals. Her day of worship was Friday (Friday
means Freya’s Day): when Christendom barred her worship, Freya became
a demon, Friday became the Black Sabbath, and the cat became a
manifestation of the devil, hence persona non grata.

Thus began a low point in both human and cat history: the over 1000-
year persecution of the cat, sort of a feline inquisition. (If it’s
any consolation to us cat people, the Church was also sponsoring the
Grand Inquisition at the time, and was busy killing people as well as
cats.)

During this period, literally hundreds of thousands of cats were
tortured, hung, burned at the stake, roasted alive, or killed outright
on sight. So great was this persecution that the population of
European cats dwindled to less than ten per cent of its pre-
inquisitional number, in spite of the cats doing all they could to
make more cats (something cats are very good at).

There was a brief respite during the years of the Black Death. With
people dying all over, they had neither the time nor the inclination
to persecute the cats. The cats responded to this absence of
persecution by rapidly multiplying and attacking the plentiful food
supply around them: the plague-carrying rats. There is some evidence
that the plague ended because of three interlocking factors: so many
people died that the fields couldn’t be planted; the lack of food in
the surrounding countryside drove the rats into the cities (rats are
scavengers, like vultures, and are always the last to starve to
death); the sudden increase in the number of cats killing rats broke
the chain necessary to perpetuate the plague.

Man, of course, promptly rewarded the cat for helping to save mankind

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The Cat in History Page 5

by resuming the feline inquisition right where it had left off. This
persecution didn’t end until well into the twentieth century, when the
various Christian churches finally stopped emphasizing witches and
their familiars, which were almost always cats.

Even in the darkest of dark ages, there were those who loved and
cherished their cats. The numbers of cats painted by the masters over
the centuries clearly shows the cat’s place in society never
completely disappeared. From a purely practical point of view, it is
awfully hard to convince a miller whose loved cat kills the vermin
that eat his grain that said loved cat is a manifestation of the
devil. He just won’t buy it: he can see the good it does, but the
supposed evil is intangible. The loved cat, of course, knows nothing
except that rat and mouse are funny human names for food: good and
evil have no relevance to a cat.

Before leaving the middle ages, mention should be made of the special
relationship between witches and cats, perpetuated to this day in our
Halloween decorations. In the Church-oriented society of the middle
ages life was hard (especially for the serfs). Few people lived past
forty or fifty, and those that did were far older than their years.
Hygiene and medicine then being what they were (or weren’t), life took
its toll in the form of various skin problems, loss of teeth, receding
gums, bent backs, arthritis, rheumatism, lumbago, and a score of other
things. An old man or woman was not the handsome or pretty thing they
were as teenagers.

Since this was a male-oriented society, an old man was often revered
for his acquired knowledge, but an old woman was a useless thing. She
could no longer bear children, carry wood, plow the field, or do any
of the other little fun things of life. Couple this uselessness with
the fact that everybody else was out working all day long, and the
poor crone had nothing to do but sit in a corner of the hovel,
muttering to herself and stroking the cat (who thought this was
great).

Now along comes some idiot who fouls the woman’s front yard
(sanitation was also somewhat lacking), which elicits a glare and a
mumbled epithet from her, as she sits there stroking her cat. The
idiot then stumbles over a stool the next day and breaks his arm.

Since, according to the times, evil befell one as a punishment for sin
or as the result of a curse, obviously the old woman gave him the Evil
Eye and placed a curse upon him, because the idiot is a good God-
fearing man. Elementary! She is a witch and the cat is her familiar.
Many an innocent old woman and her equally innocent cat died because
of just such idiots.

Marvelous Cats

Cats and sailors have a special and unbroken bond stretching back to
the days of the pharoahs. Sailors being the practical men they are,
cats were usually to be found aboard ship. The ship’s cat is a
respected and important member of the crew, charged with rat control,

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The Cat in History Page 6

and not a pet. So respected is the ship’s cat that mutinies have
occurred because the captain kicked the cat.

Because sea voyages could take weeks, months or even years, the sailor
seldom saw a priest or minister, and developed his own version of the
Faith, which tended to exclude the small details, such as avoiding
profanity, sex, and cats. Cats proliferated at sea, and thus spread
to every seaport in the world, in spite of the Church’s proscription.

In the Far East, the cat arrived twice, via the overland trade routes
and via the sea, and was immediately appreciated for its anti-vermin
qualities.

It was also appreciated for its food value (Moo-goo-gai-kitty with
fried rice!) This was a mixed blessing, for while it meant the cat had
to contend with another cat-eater, it also meant that catmaking would
be an encouraged activity (beef cattle are not an endangered species).

The cat spread rapidly throughout the world, attaining many local
varieties under the intentional or accidental influence of man, and
through possible interbreeding with local wild cats.

In many areas, away from the influence of the Church, the cat obtained
mystical and religious significance. Because of its ability to
survive disaster, the cat is often said to have nine lives — nine is
a mystical number, a trinity of trinities — and is associated with
good luck. The Japanese have the Mi-ke (Three-Fur), or good fortune
cat, a calico, statues of which are all over Japan. The British have
the superstition that if a cat, especially a black cat, crosses your
path, good luck will follow. Our own black cat superstition comes
from the Salem witch hunts, where the poor women’s cats were often
hung with them, leading to the saying the luck of the cat meaning bad
luck. This merged with the imported British black-cat superstition to
change the luck from good to bad.

In Asia, cats were often used in the temples to control mice, who
would otherwise chew on the prayer scrolls, and many became semi-
mystical. The Tibetian lamas revered cats for their patience. In
Siam (now Thailand), the priests bred sacred temple cats, similar to
the Siamese cats of today, but rounder of head and stockier of body,
and with a kink in the tail. The kink has religious significance in
the temples, but has been bred out elsewhere. In Burma, the sacred
temple cats were long-haired Siamese, but with white feet and no kink,
the Birman of today.

Original Cats

Of all the current breeds of cats, the two that have the strongest
claim to being the original domestic cat are the Egyptian Mau and the
Abyssinian. Both have the intermediate body structure and wedge-
shaped head with well-defined facial planes of the African Wildcat.
(The latest trend in modern Abyssinian breeding is to breed for a
small size, but that doesn’t destroy the argument.) Also, both have a
relatively primitive fur structure as compared with other domestic

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The Cat in History Page 7

cats, and both are definitely traceable to the proper part of the
world.

Egyptian Mau is a spotted tabby, with long legs, slightly longer in
back, giving it a raked appearance and making it very fast: it is
very similar to the African Wildcat with spots instead of stripes. It
strongly resembles the cats seen in many Egyptian temple paintings.

The Abyssinian has an all-agouti rabbit-like coat and a very wild-
looking face, and strongly resembles the cats seen in other temple
paintings.

The probability is that the original cat was a very faintly striped
African Wildcat, such as is found around the edges of the deserts even
today, which was quickly bred into striped, spotted, and all-agouti
varieties by man. There is also strong evidence to show that the cat
was domesticated several times in differing locales, and that the
modern cat is actually a composite of these various early domestics.

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The Cat in History Page 8