**************************
\n SEARCHING YOUR FAMILY TREE
\n **************************<\/p>\n
By Richard A. Pence<\/p>\n
[The following beginner’s guide to genealogy was first syndicated to
\nnewspapers in 1977 and again in 1982 by the Register and Tribune Syndicate.
\nWhile it has been updated to reflect such things as new addresses, it
\nobviously doesn’t deal with how you might effectively use them in genealogy
\nwork, since it was written before the days of home computers. Those
\nexperienced with computers will readily see applications in research,
\nrecordkeeping and printing out material. Richard A. Pence is co-author, with
\nPaul Andereck, of Computer Genealogy, published by Ancestry, Inc., Salt Lake
\nCity, and has published several books on the Pence family. He is editor of the
\nNGS\/CIG Digest, published bimonthly by the Computer Interest Group of the
\nNational Genealogical Society. He is also co-sysop of the NGS\/CIG BBS, a part
\nof the National Genealogy Conference, and moderates a conference on genealogy
\nfor the Capital PC Users Group in Washington. Copyright 1982 by the Register
\nand Tribune Syndicate, Inc., Des Moines, Iowa. Updated December, 1986; used
\nwith permission.]<\/p>\n
HOW TO GET STARTED<\/p>\n
One of the difficult aspects of genealogy – at least for me – is trying to
\nexplain to friends why a grown man should spend countless hours in a musty
\nlibrary or chasing around the country copying inscriptions from tombstones in
\novergrown cemeteries.<\/p>\n
That sort of avocation, they think, is reserved for matronly ladies who want
\nto join patriotic societies.<\/p>\n
There are many who search their family trees for that reason alone. But
\ngenealogy is much more. It is a human history of our nation’s growth and a
\npuzzle infinitely more challenging than the crossword in the Sunday New York
\nTimes.<\/p>\n
If you enjoy solving a mystery or are fascinated by the early history of our
\ncountry, then genealogy may be the hobby for you.<\/p>\n
But where do you start? The best place is right at home.<\/p>\n
The first thing you should do is write down all you know about your family,
\nstarting with yourself and your parents and working backward to your
\ngrandparents, great grandparents and so on. Chances are someone already has
\nstarted this process; if so, your job will be easier.<\/p>\n
You should include dates and places of births, marriages, deaths, places of
\nresidence and other information, such as occupation, military service or
\nchurch affiliation.<\/p>\n
When you get stuck, figure out who in your family might know the answer. In
\nfact, you should try to interview your older relatives as a first order of
\nbusiness. With some luck, you may find out much of what you want to know about
\na particular branch of your family.<\/p>\n
Early in my research I visited a great aunt who supposedly had kept some
\nfamily records. I didn’t really expect the treasure I found. Among the things
\nshe had: my third great grandmother’s family Bible – complete with vital
\nstatistics for three generations – which had made its way from Massachusetts
\nto a homestead in South Dakota nearly 100 years before; a family photo album
\nwith pictures that predated the Civil War and which contained photos of four
\nof my third great grandparents; and old newspaper clippings, letters and notes
\nwhich provided additional information and clues.<\/p>\n
INTERVIEW POINTERS<\/p>\n
There are things to keep in mind when interviewing or writing your relatives.<\/p>\n
First, make your questions specific. You’ll have a better chance of getting a
\nhelpful answer. If you ask generally about early family recollections, your
\ncorrespondent may not reply or may say that little can be remembered. Ask
\nabout specific people, specific times or places.<\/p>\n
I once wrote a great uncle, asking him for any information he might have on
\nhis ancestors. He answered, saying he didn’t remember anything. I then wrote
\nand asked him if he knew were his father had lived in 1870. His return letter
\nnot only solved that mystery, but included colorful stories about great
\ngrandfather’s days as a cowboy in Texas and Kansas, stories told at bedtime
\nwhen my great uncle was a boy.<\/p>\n
Second, inquire about photographs, diaries, letters and other family papers
\nthat may give clues for names and places your family lived. Look for items
\nsuch as funeral cards, birth announcements or marriage, birth or death
\ncertificates.<\/p>\n
Third, keep track of what you are told in a carefully dated and documented
\nfashion. Write down who told you and when they told you for each piece of
\ninformation. If a relative sends you an undated letter, add the date you
\nreceived it. If you use a tape recorder, begin the tape with the date and
\nlocation and the name of the person you are interviewing, as well as your own
\nname.<\/p>\n
FAMILY TRADITIONS<\/p>\n
You should treat family traditions with a certain amount of healthy
\nskepticism. These stories – often embellished from generation to generation –
\nare great clues for further research, but they shouldn’t be accepted until
\nthey can be documented.<\/p>\n
There are some traditions that seem to pop up in nearly every family. If you
\nencounter one of these, don’t disregard it – but be careful how you use it.
\nHere are some:<\/p>\n
* The “Three Brothers.” Invariably you will come across the belief that the
\nfounders of a particular family in this country were “three brothers, who came
\nhere at an early date.” A common variation is that “one remained in New
\nEngland, one went south and one went west.”<\/p>\n
This tradition reflects the desire of an individual to believe that everyone
\nwith the same last name is somehow related. The “three brothers” theory neatly
\nexplains why there are families with that name throughout the country whose
\nrelationships can’t be established. Most genealogists disregard this theory
\nunless there is evidence otherwise.<\/p>\n
* “We’re Related to Nobility.” This tradition also is common but often not
\ntrue. Variations include a lost dukedom, riches or a castle in some foreign
\nland.<\/p>\n
Unscrupulous promotors have played upon the desire for wealth or status by
\nconvincing people to contribute toward a fund seeking to restore a lost
\nfortune or property to its “rightful heirs” – usually everybody with the same
\nlast name as some rich or famous person.<\/p>\n
The strange thing about these con games is that the more you try to tell “Aunt
\nBessie” she’s being taaken, the more she is convinced that there’s a giant
\nconspiracy aimed at depriving her and her relatives of their just inheritance.<\/p>\n
If it does turn out that you have an English lord as an ancestor or that you
\nand George Washington are descended from the same stock, then you have an
\ninteresting addition to the story of your family. (When you consider that in
\njust 12 generations – less than 300 years – an individual has 8,190 ancestors,
\nit wouldn’t be terribly unusual to find such a connection.) But don’t forget
\nthat for every nobleman in most family trees, there are several dozen
\nancestors who came to this country as indentured servants.<\/p>\n
* Association With Famous People. You often will hear of some ancestor’s
\nassociation with famous people or events. Stories like these may have some
\nfoundation, but they often are impossible to document. However, if the facts
\nseem to fit you’ll want to continue researching the tradition.<\/p>\n
As a small boy, I read a relative’s account of how our ancestor – my third
\ngreat grandfather – supposedly spent a winter in an Indian “wickiup” (teepee
\nor lodge) and was later confronted by its owner, Blackhawk, the famous Sac
\nchief. The story was worth more checking for two reasons: Our ancestor was
\nknown to be in that area of northwestern Illinois at the time, and history
\nrecords that an incident such as this (according to Blackhawk’s autobiography)
\nwas one of the things that led up to the Blackhawk Indian War in the early
\n1830s.<\/p>\n
Finally, several years ago, I discovered an eyewitness account of the event.
\nNot only was our ancestor named as the intruder, but specific dates and places
\nwere given, thus documenting when the family moved into Illinois. In this
\ncase, a family tradition led to the eventual proof of an ancestor’s
\nparticipation in an interesting historical event and added illuminating
\ndetails about his life.<\/p>\n
But other traditions have never proved out. I’m still trying to document an
\nitem in an Indiana history that claims Abraham Lincoln visited once or twice
\nat the home of a second great grandfather (Is it true? If so, what was the
\nreason?), one that says New England relatives were frequent visitors of J.
\nPierpont Morgan, the financier (they were related to him through a Pierpont
\nline, but at best distant cousins!), and still another that places an ancestor
\namong those who participated in the Boston Tea Party (turns out he was a
\nprominent leader during the Revolution, but no facts relate him to this
\nevent).<\/p>\n
There are some other common problems with family traditions you should watch
\nfor. Some examples:<\/p>\n
An incident often will be credited to one side of the family when in fact it
\nhappened to another side. Your grandmother may tell you a story she heard as a
\nchild about something that happened to her paternal grandfather and later you
\ndiscover that it was her maternal grandfather who was involved.<\/p>\n
Sometimes the story will be credited to a person in the wrong generation. An
\nexample appears in my grandfather’s obituary, which says he was descended from
\na “Revolutionary War veteran who became known as Judge John Pence.” Since
\nJudge John wasn’t born until 1774, I knew this was impossible. I assumed what
\nhappened was that the family stretched a statement in an early family history
\nfrom “the family goes back to Revolutionary days” into veteran’s status for
\nthe first known ancestor. Years later I discovered documentation that John’s
\nfather was the one who had served in the Revolution.<\/p>\n
Mistakes about national origin can confuse a family’s history. Your great
\ngrandmother may have denied a particular nationality because it was not “the
\nthing to be” in her day. Consequently, your grandmother might pass on to you
\nwhat she believes to be the truth; in reality, though, great grandmother
\n“withheld evidence.”<\/p>\n
Don’t be surprised if, while you’re interviewing Aunt Bessie, she suddenly has
\namnesia after having displayed a remarkable memory about the family tree,
\ncomplete with names, dates and places. Suddenly – when you ask her about a
\nparticular ancestor – she can’t remember a thing. That’s a sure sign you’ve
\nfound a family “black sheep” – we all have them!<\/p>\n
KEEPING YOUR RECORDS<\/p>\n
As you collect more and more information about your ancestors, you’ll find that
\nyou will have an increasingly difficult time keeping track of who is who.
\nThat’s when you’ll want to set up some sort of record-keeping system.<\/p>\n
A looseleaf notebook and alphabetical files are enough at first. The notebook
\nis compact enough to be carried when doing research, yet it can contain enough
\ninformation so you can double-check information on the spot. The alphabetical
\nfile provides a safe and orderly means of keeping copies of accumulated records
\nor notes and correspondence about a particular family.<\/p>\n
THE NOTEBOOK<\/p>\n
These are the records I include in my “traveling notebook”:<\/p>\n
Family Ancestor Charts or Pedigree Charts. These charts, which can be
\npurchased through most genealogical societies or from businesses or bookstores
\nwhich specialize in genealogy, are for your direct ancestors only. They begin
\nat the left of the page with an individual (you or your child or parent), then
\nbranch out to the right to show parents, grandparents, etc., including dates
\nand places of births, deaths and marriages. If you are the “subject” of the
\nchart (which is designated as Chart No. 1), you are assigned the number 1.
\nYour father is No. 2, your mother is No. 3, your paternal grandfather is No.
\n4, and so on. Pedigree charts usually have complete information on three
\ngenerations of ancestors for an individual, with the names of the members of
\nthe fourth generation plus a reference to succeeding charts, where vital
\ninformation on them is recorded.<\/p>\n
This commonly used numbering system for pedigree charts is called an
\n“ahnentafel” by genealogists, after the title of a book where it was first
\nused. By looking at a chart you can see that the number for any individual’s
\nfather is 2 times that of the individual and that person’s mother’s number is
\n2 times plus 1. With the exception of No. 1, who can be either male or female,
\nall even-numbered persons are males and all odd-numbered are females. The
\nspouse of No. 1 is not assigned a number.<\/p>\n
If you don’t have charts, you can simply do an “ahnentafel listing” on a sheet
\nof paper, with the persons listed in numerical order.<\/p>\n
Carrying this numbering system over to other records allows quick
\nidentification of any person in your records and allows you to file
\nnumerically if you choose.<\/p>\n
Charts subsequent to No. 1 are numbered sequentially, with Chart No. 2 having
\nthe ancestors of No. 16 (your great great grandfather), Chart No. 3 the
\nancestors of No. 17 and so on. All these charts are kept in the front of your
\nnotebook and provide a record of the statistics you have on your more distant
\nancestors. As you acquire information, you may need to include an index of
\neach family name in your notebook. This index probably won’t be necessary
\nuntil you have traced several families back a half dozen or more generations.<\/p>\n
Family Group Sheets. The other major section in your notebook is a collection
\nof family group sheets containing information about each couple whose names
\nare on your pedigree charts. These sheets can be arranged alphabetically by
\nlast name or numerically according to your pedigree charts.<\/p>\n
Included on these sheets is the following information: name of husband, date
\nand place of his birth, marriage, death and burial, and names of his parents.
\nSimilar information is given for the wife and for each of the couple’s
\nchildren with room for their spouses’ names. Space is left for other
\ninformation such as places of residence, occupation, church affiliation and
\nmilitary service.<\/p>\n
Also included is such information as additional marriages for either husband
\nor wife and the citation or source of each piece of information. Children born
\nfrom other marriages of your ancestors are listed on separate family group
\nsheets. Adopted children may be listed if the adoption is noted.<\/p>\n
As with pedigree charts, family group sheets can be done on a plain sheet of
\npaper. Among places where these forms can be ordered are: The National
\nGenealogical Society, 4527 Seventeenth Street North, Arlington, VA 22207; New
\nEngland Historical and Genealogical Society, 101 Newbury Street, Boston MA
\n02116; the Everton Publishers, P.O. Box 368, Logan, UT 84321; or they may be
\nbought at any of the many branch libraries of the Church of Jesus Christ of
\nLatter-day Saints and in bookstores which deal in genealogy or history.<\/p>\n
The information on your family group sheets will provide you with backup facts
\nfor those contained on your charts and also will come in handy on your
\nresearch excursions.<\/p>\n
While you may not be directly interested in facts about the brothers and
\nsisters (siblings) of your ancestors, this information often can provide a
\nvital clue about your own direct line.<\/p>\n
For instance, you might learn that a particular great grandfather’s name was
\nJohn Doe, but you don’t know his father’s name. From other sources, you learn
\nthat John had a brother named James and a sister Elizabeth. Put this
\ninformation, with actual or approximate dates of birth, on the children’s
\nportion of a family group sheet.<\/p>\n
If the children you know about seem to have several years between their dates
\nof birth, you should leave blanks for other probable children. Also leave the
\nspaces for the parents blank. Later in your research, you may discover that a
\nSamuel Doe had children named John, James and Elizabeth, as well as others.
\nCheck this information against what you have learned about your great
\ngrandfather and his siblings. If there’s enough to convince you that Samuel
\nmay indeed be John’s father, then you can begin in earnest to find out more
\nabout him.<\/p>\n
There’s another important reason for learning about the brothers and sisters
\nof your ancestors: They can provide clues to earlier generations of a family.<\/p>\n
Building on the above information, suppose your great grandfather and one or
\nmore of his brothers named their first sons Samuel. This would be added
\nevidence that Samuel was John’s father, for it was the custom in the last
\ncentury to name the first son after the paternal grandfather.<\/p>\n
Likewise, the second son was commonly named after the maternal grandfather,
\nand suceeding sons were often named after uncles or great uncles. The girls,
\ntoo, were often named after their grandmothers or great grandmothers.<\/p>\n
And given names that appear to be surnames also can provide clues to a
\nmother’s or grandmother’s maiden name. Naming a son John Smith Doe might
\nindicate that his maternal grandfather’s name was John Smith.<\/p>\n
Your family group sheets can also help in establishing ages of the parents and
\nchildren. Suppose you are piecing together information on a family and you
\nonly have ages or birthdates for a few of the children. Group the children as
\nbest you can from the oldest down to the youngest.<\/p>\n
If you know the spread of time from the oldest to the youngest, you may be
\nable to approximate the mother’s age by keeping in mind normal childbearing
\nages. Statistics tell us that the average age for men to marry is about 25;
\nfor women, about 21. The average time between children is about two years,
\nsometimes less.<\/p>\n
If there is a gap of several years between children, it likely could indicate
\nthat one or more children died at birth or in infancy. Another possibility is
\nthat the older group of children had a different mother who died and the
\nyounger group are the offspring of a second marriage.<\/p>\n
Large numbers of children with a spread of 25 years between the youngest and
\noldest definitely should lead you to examine whether there was another wife.
\nIf you know there was an earlier wife, but are unsure as to when she died,
\nthink of the possibility she may have died in childbirth, a frequent cause of
\ndeath in early days.<\/p>\n
THE FILE<\/p>\n
Despite all of the information you’ll have in your “traveling notebook,” you
\nstill will need a place to keep other documents and backup material.<\/p>\n
A secondhand standard letter-size file cabinet should do the job. Initially, I
\nhad a file folder for each family name filed alphabetically. As the amount of
\ninformation grew, however, these folders had to be subdivided.<\/p>\n
I now have dozens of folders for the Pence family, including several for some
\nindividuals, plus many for unrelated Pence families. (In the course of your
\nresearch, you’ll accumulate a lot of material on unrelated lines. You’ll want
\nto file this material because it can help you prove or disprove theories about
\nyour own lines. In my case, piecing together all of the various Pence families
\nin the U.S. eventually became an overriding genealogical interest.<\/p>\n
Above all, remember as you go about your genealogical research that everything
\nmust be verified or documented before it can be considered genealogical
\nevidence. Place each bit of information, its source, the place you found it,
\nthe date and other pertinent facts on a sheet and put it into its proper file
\nfolder as soon as you can.<\/p>\n
SECONDARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION<\/p>\n
Genealogists need to learn what written records are available and where to
\nfind them in order to do an accurate job on their family trees. Generally,
\nrecords are referred to as either “primary” (contemporary or original) or
\n“secondary” (compiled or published).<\/p>\n
Primary records are those which report an event at or close to the time it
\nhappened. They are original records of events and include state or federal
\ncensus records; courthouse records, such as deeds, wills, probates, birth or
\ndeath records, naturalization records, or court proceedings (both civil and
\ncriminal); church records, primarily baptism and marriage; ships’ passenger
\nlists; and military records.<\/p>\n
Secondary, or published records, include histories, indexes or compilations of
\ncensus or marriage records, printed family histories or genealogies, and
\ncollections of tombstone inscriptions.<\/p>\n
Primary records are the most reliable source of information, but secondary
\nsources can provide you with many shortcuts in your genealogical research. A
\nprinted family genealogy, for example, might have information on several
\ngenerations of a given line you’re searching.<\/p>\n
Most competent genealogists consider published family histories only as clues
\nfor further searching. They use the dates and places as evidence of where to
\nsearch for more supporting information. A well-done family history or
\ngenealogy will include citations to primary records and will greatly simplify
\nyour future research.<\/p>\n
LIBRARIES<\/p>\n
As interest in genealogy and local history has grown, more and more libraries
\nhave improved their collections in these areas. Many county-seat libraries
\nhave fine collections. Almost every state library has a special collection of
\ngenealogical materials, often maintained with the aid of a state historical or
\ngenealogical society. Unfortunately, smaller libraries often cannot afford
\nsuch collections, although some books may be available through interlibrary
\nloan.<\/p>\n
In your search for secondary reference materials, you’ll want to start at your
\nlocal – or nearest larger – library, especially if your family has lived in
\nyour county or state for many years. Ask your librarian for local histories
\nand genealogies; one of these might, for instance, tell you where your family
\nlived before it came to the county where you now live. Also check the
\nlibraries in nearby counties.<\/p>\n
Often the books you need to check will not be available locally. If you have a
\nfairly good idea of the information you want and which book it is in you may
\nbe able to write your state library (or another library) and ask for specific
\ninformation.<\/p>\n
Many state libraries have genealogical finding aids which can help you. Some
\nhave indexes of names in early histories or other printed or microfilm
\nrecords, such as marriage record indexes. Write your state library and ask for
\ninformation. Most have a pamphlet describing what is available.<\/p>\n
Many will copy printed or microfilm records for you for a fee. They also may
\nbe able to provide you with a list of people who will undertake genelogical
\nresearch for you for a fee.<\/p>\n
The Library of Congress (Washington, DC 20540) has an excellent collection of
\ngenealogies and local histories. If your travels include a trip to Washington,
\nthis is a must visit. The library’s small staff can only do a limited amount
\nof searching in the catalogs and indexes for specific titles or references if
\nyou query it by mail.<\/p>\n
You can write the library for free leaflets describing its services. The three
\nmost helpful are “Reference Services and Facilities of the Local History and
\nGenealogy Room,” “Guide to Genealogical Research: A Selected List,” and
\n“Surnames: A Selected List of Books.”<\/p>\n
The Library of the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolution
\n(1776 D Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20006), has an extensive genealogical
\ncollection, including printed genealogies as well as manuscripts submitted by
\nindividuals or local chapters. It also has Bible, church and cemetery records,
\nabstracts of court records, lineage books, and other materials. The Library is
\nopen to nonmembers for a small fee except during April.<\/p>\n
The National Genealogical Society has its own library and maintains a library
\nloan service and research service for members. The library collection includes
\npublished and unpublished works pertaining to genealogy, local history and
\nheraldry. It is open to nonmembers for a small fee.<\/p>\n
The most famous genealogical library is that of the Church of Jesus Christ of
\nLatter-day Saints (35 North West Temple, Salt Lake City, UT 84150). It has a
\nmassive genealogical collection, much of it on microfilm or microfiche and
\navailable through branch libraries around the country.<\/p>\n
Its collection includes a computer-produced genealogical library catalog on
\nmicrofiche; the latest edition of the International Genealogical Index, which
\nlists the names and selected vital data of approximately 88 million deceased
\npersons from over 90 countries; the Accelerated Indexing System’s microfiche
\nindex for 1790-1850; an extensive list of library aids and reference books;
\nand the Family Registry of some 100,000-plus names coordinating the searchers
\nwith the names being searched.<\/p>\n
The library is open to the public and specialists in most areas are available
\nfor consultation.<\/p>\n
You’ll save a lot of backtracking if you make certain you don’t leave a
\nlibrary, court house or other research site without a complete citation
\nregarding information you’ve found. Also write down the citations and general
\ncontent for books you didn’t find anything in and keep a list of those so you
\nwon’t go over the same ground again. This list can also be of help in case you
\nneed to go back to check these sources for newly discovered ancestors.<\/p>\n
GENEALOGIES AND LOCAL HISTORIES<\/p>\n
As previously mentioned, two of the more common types of secondary information
\nare local histories. Both can be excellent sources of information or clues for
\nfurther research. You should keep in mind, however, that these sources may not
\nalways be accurate.<\/p>\n
Local histories were very popular in the latter part of the 1800s, especially
\nin the Midwest. Most of them were money-making efforts of large publishers who
\nsent teams of people out into a county. These people collected some local
\nhistory and local biographies and added them to a pre-packaged state history.<\/p>\n
They also sold books, for that is the way the publishers made money. And the
\nway to make sure they would sell more copies was to include flowery write-ups
\nabout county residents – either for a fee or upon the subject’s promise to buy
\none or more of the usually high-priced books. The more prominent one was made
\nto appear, the more books he was likely to buy, so the publisher’s word
\ncraftsmen spared no adjectives.<\/p>\n
The biographies were full of “loyal patriots,” “respected farmers” and
\n“prominent merchants,” as well as “loving wives and mothers.”<\/p>\n
Even with these drawbacks, there often is much genealogical information in
\nthese presentations. Usually the names of previous generations are given,
\nalong with the wife’s maiden name and the names of her parents. Often included
\nwere the dates the family came to the county and where it had previously
\nlived.<\/p>\n
One of the major drawbacks of family genealogies and histories, especially
\nthose published in the Nineteenth Century, is the lack of adequate
\ndocumentation. As often as not, the author – in his zeal to trace the family
\nback to the Mayflower or other illustrious beginnings – made serious mistakes.
\nThe most common one was assuming that an ancestor was the son of a particular
\nman with the same name without proper documentation.<\/p>\n
On the other hand, these books provide excellent clues for further research.
\nYou can usually make your own judgments as to the accuracy of a particular
\ngenealogy by noting such things as completeness and citiations to specific
\nsources.<\/p>\n
THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES<\/p>\n
Of all the materials and sources available to the genealogist, by far the most
\nimportant are primary records or “original” records. These are the records
\nfound in archives, courthouses, town halls, old churches – even in the attic.<\/p>\n
The value of primary records is that they are contemporary with the event
\nwhich they record. Thus they are more likely to be accurate than a record made
\nsome time later from memory.<\/p>\n
The National Archives and Records Administration (Washington, DC, 20408) is
\nthe repository for the U.S. government. It preserves and makes available
\nvaluable federal records from all three branches of government. The records in
\nthe custody of the National Archives are housed in the National Archives
\nbuilding in Washington, DC, (bounded by Pennsylvania and Constitution Avenues
\nand 7th and 9th Streets, N.W.), in the Washington National Records Center in
\nSuitland, MD, and in eleven archives branches around the country.<\/p>\n
CENSUS RECORDS<\/p>\n
One of the most valuable records for the genealogist is the federal census.
\nThe United States government has conducted a census of each state and
\nterritory every ten years since 1790 and, in some places, other years. The
\nfederal census records from 1790 through 1840 contain little genealogical
\ninformation. Only the head of household is given by name; all others in the
\nfamily are counted only in specific age groups by sex. These records, though,
\ncan be helpful, for they tell you the number of children in the family and
\ntheir approximate ages (remember that not all in the household are necessarily
\nfamily members). They also can help you find where your family lived and
\npinpoint your research.<\/p>\n
The 1850 census was the first to include the name of each person in a
\nhousehold, including age, sex, color, occupation, and birth place (state,
\nterritory or foreign country), occupation and value of real estate and
\npersonal property (usually just for the head of the household). In 1870 the
\ncensus gave the month of birth if born during the year, the month of marriage
\nif married within the year, and whether the father or mother of each
\nindividual was foreign born. The 1880 census added two valuable pieces of
\ninformation: the relationship of each person to the head of the household and
\nthe birthplace of the father and mother of each person. The 1890 census was
\nlargely destroyed by fire in 1921 and only fragments of it are available for
\nresearch.<\/p>\n
The 1900 and 1910 censuses are the most helpful available. The 1900 census
\nincluded the month and year of birth of each individual, as well as the number
\nof years married for each couple, the number of children the woman had borne,
\nand the number living in 1900. The census indicated whether a family rented or
\nowned its own residence, whether it was a home or a farm, and whether it was
\nmortgaged. For foreign born, the year of immigration was given and whether
\nnaturalized or first papers filed. The 1910 census has similar information and
\nincludes whether it was a first marriage or, if not, what number, language
\nspoken, employment status, and whether served in the Union or Confederate army
\nor navy.<\/p>\n
Because of the confidential nature of census records, Congress determines when
\neach census may be released. Current law requires that census information
\nremain confidential for 72 years. The 1920 census, available in 1992, is the
\nlast to have been indexed.<\/p>\n
Published indexes are available for all U.S. censuses from 1790 through 1850.
\nComputerized indexes of the 1860 census for most states will be available in a
\nfew years.<\/p>\n
The 1790 census – those parts available – was published by the government in
\nthe early 1900s and has since been privately reprinted. Published census
\nschedules for 1790 are for Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New
\nHampshire, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South
\nCarolina and Vermont.<\/p>\n
The schedules for the remaining states – Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, New
\nJersey, Tennessee and Virginia – were burned during the War of 1812.
\nSubstitute schedules, made from names in state censuses or tax lists, have
\nbeen published for many of the missing states. These printed 1790 schedules
\nare available in most larger libraries.<\/p>\n
The 1880, 1900 and most of the 1910 censuses have “soundex” indexes on
\nmicrofilm. The soundex is a coded surname index based on the way a surname
\nsounds rather than how it is spelled. The 1880 soundex includes only those
\nhouseholds with a child 10 or younger.<\/p>\n
In using a census index, be certain that you have looked for your surname in
\nall of its possible spelling variations. Remember also that indexes, including
\nthose produced by a computer, are subject to human error. Every genealogist
\nhas a horror story about printed census indexes; studies show that the error
\nrate is high because of improper keypunching or misreading of the original
\nrecords. So if you don’t find your ancestor in an index it doesn’t necessarily
\nmean that he cannot be found in the census. You may often have to search every
\nname in a given county before you find him.<\/p>\n
The National Archives has original or microfilm copies of all the federal
\ncensus schedules that have been made available to the public. These can be
\nused in the microfilm reading room in the National Archives or at one of the
\neleven branches. If you are searching in Washington, enter the Pennsylvania
\nAvenue side of the building. You will need to sign in and out and notebooks or
\nbrief cases are subject to search. The reading room is located on the fourth
\nfloor. While a researcher’s identification card is necessary for certain
\nresearch in the National Archives, you don’t need one to use the microfilm
\nreading room. In any case they are available in the lobby upon request.<\/p>\n
To help with your census search, the Archives has a free booklet, “Getting
\nStarted: Beginning Your Genealogical Research in the National Archives.”
\nIncluded is an explanation of the soundex system.<\/p>\n
If you are unable to visit a library where census record microfilms are
\navailable, the National Archives will, on request, send you a copy of each of
\nits catalogs of microfilm copies: “Federal Population Censuses 1790-1890,”
\n“1900 Federal Population Census,” and “The 1910 Federal Population Census.”
\nPrices and order blanks are included. Also, many county libraries have
\nmicrofilm copies of census records for their local areas.<\/p>\n
Census records cannot always be relied on as accurate. Persons giving the
\ninformation may not have known the exact ages or places of birth of each
\nmember of the household. And there’s always been vanity about ages – I’ve
\nnoted cases where people aged only five years in the ten years between the
\ncensuses! Census takers spelled what they heard and many of them spelled
\nbadly. And apparently they weren’t hired because of their penmanship. Even so,
\nthe family listing in a census gives you valuable information and provides
\nclues for further research.<\/p>\n
MILITARY RECORDS<\/p>\n
The National Archives has military service records beginning with the
\nRevolutionary War. Two types of records are of particular interest to the
\ngenealogist: the compiled service record and the pension application record.<\/p>\n
Compiled military service records are of limited genealogical value. They
\nserve primarily to prove military service by your ancestor. For the most part,
\nthey consist of the serviceman’s rank, military unit, dates of service,
\npayroll and muster rolls, discharge, desertion or death. A few of the later
\nwar records include some personal information such as age, birthplace and
\nphysical description.<\/p>\n
Microfilm indexes of military service records are available for the following
\nperiods: Revolution, 1775-1783; post-Revolution, 1784-1811; War of 1812, 1812-
\n1815; Indian Wars, 1817-1858; Mexican War, 1846-1848; Civil War, Union troops,
\n1861-1865; Civil War, Confederate troops, 1861-1865; Spanish-American War,
\n1898-1899; and the Philippine Insurrection, 1899-1902.<\/p>\n
Pension application records are the most important military records for
\ngenealogists. The National Archives has pension applications and payment
\nrecords for veterans, widows and other heirs. They are based on service in the
\nU.S. armed forces between 1775 and 1916, but not duty in the service of the
\nConfederate States.<\/p>\n
Genealogical information in these files varies. In the file for one of my
\nancestors was an “autograph letter” recounting his experiences during the
\nRevolution as well as statements signed by John Hancock attesting to his
\nservice in Maine, along with notarized information relating to his marriage
\nand the birth of his children. Others may contain only depositions relating to
\nthe applicant’s service, his age, birthplace and place of residence. Widow’s
\napplications often have more material, for they had to furnish the date and
\nplace of the marriage, the date and place of her husband’s death, her maiden
\nname, age, residence, and the names and ages of her children.<\/p>\n
The National Genealogical Society compiled and published an alphabetical name
\nindex of the Revolutionary War pension applications files and is working on
\none for the War of 1812.<\/p>\n
To secure photocopies of military or pension records by mail, write the
\nNational Archives Reference Service Branch (NNIR) and ask for copies of its
\nmilitary request order forms. Information on the form must be as complete as
\npossible for an effective search to be made. At a minimum, you must know the
\nstate from which he served and the period when he served. There is a charge
\nfor this service.<\/p>\n
Some state archives or libraries have additional military records – or copies
\nof the federal records – so you will want to check there. Iowa, for instance,
\nhas an excellent collection gathered as a part of a WPA project in the 1930s
\nand maintained by military authorities. Some states also issued pensions;
\ninquiries about these should be directed to the state where the veteran lived
\nafter the war.<\/p>\n
PASSENGER ARRIVAL RECORDS\/FEDERAL LAND RECORDS<\/p>\n
The Archives and its branches have passenger arrival records beginning in 1820
\n(they were not required before that date). To request a search of the
\npassenger arrival records, write the Reference Service Branch (NNIR) and
\nrequest forms for ordering passenger arrival records. The important
\ninformation you will need includes approximate date of arrival of your
\nancestor, port of entry, and – if possible – the name of the ship. There is a
\ncharge for this service.<\/p>\n
If your ancestor lived in one of the “public land” states (30 states,
\nprimarily from Ohio west) and bought land directly from the federal
\ngovernment, you can request a search of the National Archives Records. You
\nwill need to furnish your ancestor’s full name, the state in which he or she
\nacquired land, whether the land was acquired before or after 1908, and, if
\npossible, the legal description of the land by section, township and range. If
\nyou don’t have a legal description, describe its location as precisely as you
\ncan. There is a fee for this service and it may take several weeks to process
\nyour order.<\/p>\n
STATE AND LOCAL RECORDS<\/p>\n
The records maintained by each county or other local jurisdiction are valuable
\nsources of family information. Land records, wills and probates, other court
\nrecords and vital statistics are just some of the materials available to the
\ngenealogist.<\/p>\n
Unfortunately, many of these records have been lost by fire or, perhaps,
\ncarelessness. And in most states, birth and death records weren’t kept until
\nthis centrury. Marriage records are often available for much earlier years.<\/p>\n
In general, early records for most of New England are fairly complete. Most
\nMassachusetts vital records have been published. In the South, however, many
\nearly records weren’t centrally kept or were lost or burned.<\/p>\n
In most states records of interest to genealogists are kept in the state
\narchives, the state library and a land office. County records not transferred
\nto the state archives are usually found in county courthouses. In New England
\nsome records, particularly vital records, are kept in town halls.<\/p>\n
Many state libraries have developed information sheets that will help you
\nbegin your research. There are also published genealogical research guides
\navailable for many states.<\/p>\n
The government publication, “Where to Write for Vital Records,” gives specific
\ninformation on the location of these records. Issued periodically, it is
\navailable from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
\nOffice, Washington, DC 20402, or can be found in many libraries. It lists
\ninformation by state and includes the repository, address and cost of each
\ncertificate.<\/p>\n
“The Handy Book for Genealogists” is a particularly helpful guide. It contains
\ninformation on local record sources, including published state and local
\nhistories, lists of libraries and historical societies, county maps of each
\nstate, a listing of counties, with records available in each and whom and
\nwhere to write for them, date the county was formed and its parent counties,
\nand a rundown of available census records and indexes to them. Available from
\nEverton Publishers, P.O. Box 369, Logan, UT 84321.<\/p>\n
You can find out what records are available in a county by writing the county
\nclerk. (The exact county official in charge of various records varies from
\nstate to state; a letter addressed to the clerk will usually be passed on to
\nthe proper office.)<\/p>\n
If you can provide a specific name and an approximate date for a document
\n(deed, birth, death, marriage, will, etc.), the clerk can find and copy the
\nrecord for you at a nominal fee (usually about $3).<\/p>\n
VITAL RECORDS<\/p>\n
While vital records are the most important records for genealogists, their
\navailability varies widely from area to area, as previously mentioned.<\/p>\n
An additional problem is that information found in them is not always
\naccurate. Early records may not be complete, the person providing the
\ninformation may have given inaccurate data either intentionally or by mistake,
\nor other errors have occured in copying or indexing.<\/p>\n
If a parent gave the information for a birth certificate, you can assume it is
\naccurate. Beware, however, of information provided for a death certificate. A
\nperson giving such information for his grandfather often didn’t know the
\npertinent information asked, such as date and place of birth, or gave confused
\ninformation. As an example, a great uncle provided information for the death
\ncertificate of his father (my great grandfather) and in the blank for the
\ndecedant’s mother’s maiden name (a sorely needed piece of information for me)
\nis listed my great uncle’s mother’s name, not that of his father’s mother.<\/p>\n
While the date of death given on a death certificate is usually accurate, the
\ncause of death may not be as complete as you’d like even though furnished by a
\ncoroner or doctor. The cause of death for one of my ancestors is listed as
\n“apoplexy” (stroke). Under “contributory causes,” the doctor wrote
\n“drunkeness” and under “how long” he entered “many years”! (A story begging to
\nbe learned! Followup led to an obituary which recounted a trip to town the
\nFriday night before he died and the wrecking of the buggy on the way home; the
\nobituary was diplomatically silent about the cause of the accident.)<\/p>\n
Marriage records are usually dependable, since the persons involved supplied
\nthe information. However, sometimes folks fudged about their ages – either
\nbecause they were too young to marry without permission of their parents or
\nthey didn’t want the clerk to know exactly how old they were. My father was
\nmarried a few months before his 21st birthday and gave his age as 21, thus
\navoiding the hassel of getting his father to sign. And Dad went to a
\nneighboring county for the marriage license, knowing that his home county
\nwould verify his age against his birth record.<\/p>\n
PROBATE RECORDS<\/p>\n
Probate records are important for genealogists. Among the earliest available,
\nthey help document family relationships and dates of death. A will may list
\nthe wife and\/or husband and all the children by their given names, may include
\nsome grandchildren’s names and the married names of daughters and their
\nhusbands’ names. Sometimes, though, you’ll find one that simply says “my
\nbeloved wife” and “all of my children” without naming any of them. Remember,
\ntoo, that a particular son or daughter may have previously been provided for
\nand the absence of a name in a will does not necessarily mean a person was not
\nan offspring of the deceased.<\/p>\n
If no will can be found, you must search for other papers. Usually you will
\nfind court orders appointing an administrator or executor. If a person left a
\nwill, he often named an “executor” of the will and the court required that
\nperson to post a bond. If a person died “intestate” (without a will), then the
\ncourt usually appointed an “administrator.” Thus the use of executor or
\nadministrator in court records indicates whether a will was left. Most
\ncounties have indexes of executors’ and administrators’ bonds. If you search
\nlong enough and hard enough you can almost always find some court record of a
\nperson’s death – at least those who owned property, for there had to be some
\ndisposition of that property.<\/p>\n
DEEDS<\/p>\n
Sometimes the answer can be found in deeds, although these usually do not
\ncontain genealogical information. At a minimum, deeds help you establish where
\nyour ancestors lived and when. Occasionally you will find family references
\nsuch as “the same land which I inherited from my father, Samuel, as his eldest
\nson and heir.” Also, some land records, particularly those for settlement of
\nestates, may list heirs. If your ancestor conveyed “an undivided fifth
\ninterest” in a piece of property it would indicate that he and four other
\nheirs, likely his siblings, may have inherited the property.<\/p>\n
Deeds can also help establish whether an ancestor was married, since the sale
\nof land requires the wife’s consent. The absence of a wife’s name indicates
\nthe seller was unmarried at the time. In one case, I was unable to find the
\ndate of death for an ancestor’s wife prior to his remarriage to another woman.
\nTo complicate matters, both women had the given name Elizabeth. However,
\ncareful checking of deeds involved in his many land transactions revealed a
\nperiod of about two years when he sold land without a wife signing. This
\ninformation revealed the approximate dates of the first woman’s death and his
\nlater remarriage.<\/p>\n
While most counties have accurate indexes of deed records, usually these are a
\n“grantor” (seller) index and a “grantee” (buyer) index. Other persons who may
\nbe mentioned in a deed are not indexed and the information you are looking for
\nmay be “lost” in one of dozens of deed books. I once solved a perplexing
\ngenealogical problem for another person quite by accident. She wrote wanting
\nto know if perhaps two of her ancestor’s daughters had married into the Pence
\nfamily since the two families were neighbors. They hadn’t. But one day while
\nchecking a deed for some land my ancestor had bought, I discovered all of the
\ninformation relating to the marriages of her ancestor’s children. Turned out
\nthat the land was being sold by her ancestor’s heirs, one of whom was a
\ndaughter whose existence and married name were unknown. The deed was indexed
\nunder the name of the unknown daughter’s husband along with “et al” – “and
\nothers.” Naturally, the persons she was looking for were among the “others.”
\nMoral: You may have to check deeds for in-laws of your ancestors as well as
\nthose for neighbors in order to find that elusive fact.<\/p>\n
GUARDIAN BONDS<\/p>\n
Another useful record found in courthouses is the record of guardian bonds, or
\norphan’s bonds. These can establish the parentage of a person who was a minor
\nand help establish dates of death for the parent or parent. Note that it was
\nnot necessary for both parents to be deceased for a guardian to be named. This
\nwas sometimes done in cases where a minor child was an heir to a grandfather’s
\nestate through the deceased parent or if a mother was remarrying. In both
\ncases, and in others, the guardian was appointed to protect the child’s rights
\nto the estate. I’ve also noted cases such as one where a person was named
\nguardian of two orphans who had the same last name as he. Instead of being
\nniece and nephew, as might be expected, they turned out to be his own
\nchildren. He was named guardian in order to take custody of their portion of
\ntheir mother’s inheritance from her father’s estate.<\/p>\n
COURTHOUSE RESEARCH TIPS<\/p>\n
As always, be sure to take complete citations when extracting wills, deeds or
\nother court records. Witnesses or those who gave bond for certain transactions
\nshould also be recorded, for these may have been relatives.<\/p>\n
Remember that in the early years of our country, many people could not read or
\nwrite, so watch for variant spellings of the name you are searching. Often
\nnames were recorded as they sounded to clerks. This is how the name Bentz
\nbecame Pence in most parts of the U.S. (The German “B” is often pronounced as
\n“P.”) Most often the spellings we use today were the result of an accident,
\nnot a deliberate effort. It’s probably not worth your while to look for a
\ncourt record for a name change, for it was seldom done. Likewise, people who
\nspell a similar surname different from you may be related to you, while those
\nwho spell it the same may not.<\/p>\n
A few years ago, notice was taken of the legal name change made by a prominent
\nperson. A Johannes Hart Pence lived in New Jersey in colonial times. One of
\nhis sons, out of deference to his grandmother’s maiden name, began using
\nHartpence as his surname. Generations later, a member of this family,
\nremembering the story about the name having been changed in early days, went
\nto court to have it changed back to “the old way.” That’s why a presidential
\ncandidate has the name Gary Hart instead of Gary Pence!<\/p>\n
Another thing to watch for is translation of names. The German Zimmerman
\nbecame its English equivalent, Carpenter, for example.<\/p>\n
You also need to watch for misspellings of place names, particularly in deeds.
\nIn searching for the spot where an ancestor lived, I kept finding it described
\nas being “at the foot of Rich Mountain.” No such place could be found on any
\nmap, old or new, in the area. I finally figured out why. The ancestor was
\nGerman and if he described the land to an English clerk, he would describe it
\nwith a German accent. If the word was pronounced “rich,” what might the
\ncorrect word be? Answer: “Ridge.” Sure enough, Ridge Mountain was on the map
\nand the land was located.<\/p>\n
And, in earlier times, the boundaries of the counties were constantly
\nchanging. Thus, in order for you to concentrate your research in the proper
\nplace, you need to know the geographic history of the areas you are interested
\nin.<\/p>\n
For instance, some of my ancestors lived for many years in Shenandoah County,
\nVA. This county was created in 1772 from a portion of Frederick County, which
\nin turn was created in 1738 from Orange and Augusta counties – both of which
\nwere carved out of other counties. And today, the land on which they lived is
\nlocated in Page County, which was created from Shenandoah County in 1833.
\nTherefore, depending on the dates involved, you might have to search the
\ncourthouses of three or more counties to find the appropriate record for an
\nindividual.<\/p>\n
Everton’s “Handy Book” (mentioned earlier) can provide you with information
\nabout the formation of counties.<\/p>\n
FAMILY BIBLES<\/p>\n
Family Bibles or information on tombstones are excellent records – but there
\nare some things you have to be careful about. For instance, Bibles usually are
\naccurate family records, but you should check the date the Bible was printed.
\nIf it was printed in 1850 and contains family birth, death and marriage
\nrecords back into the 1700s, obviously someone wrote these records long after
\nthe fact and may not have known the facts or remembered accurately, or even
\ncould have been told the wrong information.<\/p>\n
Also, you should check the handwriting carefully. If several entries are in
\nthe same shade of ink in almost identical handwriting, it’s a good sign those
\nentries were made at the same time and probably not concurrent with the event.
\nThe date of the last nearly identical record is probably closest to the
\nrecording date.<\/p>\n
TOMBSTONE RECORDS<\/p>\n
Tombstones, too, are sometimes erected many years after a person dies and
\ntherefore might contain erroneous dates. Or the stonecutter could have erred
\nor been given the wrong information. Be careful, too, of printed compilations
\nof cemetery records (this applies to other published material, such as
\nmarriage records), because errors can be made in copying, indexing or
\npublishing. A book on one cemetery contains entry for one of my wife’s
\nancestors, including this quote: “son of N.B.” This contradicted other
\ninformation and it was not until much later – when I had someone recheck the
\nstone for me – that I learned the correct inscription was: “Erected by his
\nson, W.B.” This fit what I had previously believed.<\/p>\n
When copying cemetery inscriptions, be careful not to misread numbers or
\nletters. The number 4 is often carved with a light horizontal line that wears
\naway leaving what looks like the number 1 or 7. Other numbers that are easy to
\nmisread: 3 and 8, 8 and 6, 5 and 3. Letters usually are more distinct, but C,
\nG, D and O can be confused. Mar and May are hard to distinguish, as are Jul
\nand Jun. When copying, place a question mark over letters or numbers you are
\nunsure of.<\/p>\n
Be sure to record surrounding stones, for they can provide clues to family
\nrelationships. Look for markers outlining family plots and note the names of
\nall those buried within the plot. A woman who was a widow for a number of
\nyears, or a bride who died young, might be buried with her parents, and others
\nwith different names may be related.<\/p>\n
Many cemeteries will not be well cared for and will be badly overgrown. The
\nbest time to search is the early spring or late fall when the foliage is thin
\nand the weeds short. Helpful equipment for “tombstone hunting” includes
\ncarpenter’s chalk (for rubbing over letters to make them easier to read), a
\nputty knife to scrape debris off fallen stones, a scrub brush to clean stones,
\na crowbar to turn heavy stones, perhaps an axe to clear away underbrush or a
\nshovel to dig away from sunken stones, and a camera to record unusual stones.<\/p>\n
Even if your ancestor is buried in an unmarked grave, if you know the cemetery
\nhe or she is buried in you can sometimes get information about him from
\ncemetery records. Write a library or historical society near the cemetery to
\nlearn if such records are available. Larger city cemeteries usually have a
\nsexton who maintains such records. If one exists for the cemetery you are
\ninterested in, that is the person to contact.<\/p>\n
NEWSPAPERS<\/p>\n
Marriage notices, obituaries and birth announcements are often found in
\nnewspapers – if you are willing to spend the time to hunt through them. A few
\nare indexed, but most require a page-by-page search. You’ll need to know where
\nthe family lived and the approximate date of the event you are interested in.<\/p>\n
Some local libraries have microfilm or other copies of early newspapers and
\nmany state libraries have extensive collections. The Library of Congress has
\nan excellent collection of early American newspapers.<\/p>\n
If you know the place and date of marriage, birth or death, you can usually
\nget a copy of any mention of it (at least for more recent years) by writing
\nnewspapers in the area. Your library probably has a directory of newspapers in
\nthe U.S.<\/p>\n
“Newspaper Indexes: A Location and Subject Guide for Researchers,” 3 vols., by
\nAnita Cheek Milner (Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, NJ), lists newspaper indexes by
\nstate, county and town, indicating the repositories in which they can be
\nfound.<\/p>\n
CHURCH RECORDS<\/p>\n
If you know the religious affiliation of your ancestor, you should try to find
\nout what records are available for the churches in the area where he or she
\nlived. Records vary widely from denomination to denomination. Some may be
\nhoused in a national or state repository; others are found on closet shelves
\nof the current church secretary.<\/p>\n
“A Survey of American Church Records,” by E. Kay Kirkham (Everton Publishers,
\nLogan, UT), is a guide to the location of church records that have been
\npublished or deposited in public archives.<\/p>\n
OTHER HELP<\/p>\n
There are countless other sources for genealogical information – literally too
\nmany to be considered. Your local library is a good resource in discovering
\nsome of them. It will likely have several books on genealogical research, all
\nof which will give you additional ideas. It also may subscribe to a number of
\ngenealogical periodicals. Take time to check through a few of these. One
\nfeature in many of them is a section with queries about “lost” ancestors. I’ve
\nreceived a lot of help by writing to those searching the same lines as I am.
\nIn fact, one of the pleasant things about genealogy is the willingness of its
\npractitioners to share their findings with you.<\/p>\n
If you get stuck on a particular line, placing a query in a genealogical
\npublication may yield results. If you follow this route, BE SPECIFIC. Saying
\nyou will “exchange information on the Baker family” won’t bring many responses
\nbecause readers won’t know who it is you are looking for or if they have
\ninformation that will help you.<\/p>\n
Try this approach: “Need parents of James L. Baker, born OH 1812, married Sue
\nAllen in Bartholomew County, IN, in 1837; lived Warren County, IN, 1850
\ncensus. Who were his parents? Hers? Was George Baker, Bartholomew County 1850
\nhis brother or cousin?” [NOTE: I made up all of the foregoing information, but
\nafter this article began appearing in local newspapers, I got a response to
\nit!]<\/p>\n
If you write others seeking information, remember your mail manners. Because
\nyou’re asking them to help you, you should make it easy for them. Ask
\nquestions precisely. Include as much information as necessary to identify the
\nindividual you are interested in, but don’t include extraneous material. A
\nshort, to-the- point letter will get a response. One dealing with a variety of
\nsubjects will be set aside because of the extensive work involved in answering
\nit.<\/p>\n
Be responsive to the needs of the individual you are writing and offer
\ninformation you may have that could be of help. Offer to pay the cost of
\ncopies of material you request or to reimburse for out-of-pocket expenses. And
\nit’s customary when writing to seek information to include an SASE
\n(self-addressed stamped envelope) for the reply.<\/p>\n
Keep a copy of the letters you send, for it may be difficult from the reply to
\ntell what you said in your request. And it’s a good idea to keep a log of in-
\ncoming and out-going letters, including a notation as to when particular
\nletters were answered. ******<\/p>\n
[Created with PC-Write. Not paged. You should be able to page this and print]
\nit out with nearly any word processor.]<\/p>\n
