OBSERVATION OF
\n COLD NUCLEAR FUSION IN CONDENSED MATTER<\/p>\n
S. E. Jones, E. P. Palmer, J. B. Czirr, D. L. Decker, G. L. Jensen,
\n J. M. Thorne, and S. F. Taylor<\/p>\n
Department of Physics and Chemistry
\n Brigham Young University
\n Provo, Utah 84602<\/p>\n
and<\/p>\n
J. Rafelski
\n Department of Physics
\n University of Arizona
\n Tucson, Arizona 85721
\n March 23, 1989<\/p>\n
Fusion of isotopic hydrogen nuclei is the principal means of producing
\nenergy in the high-temperature interior of stars. In relatively cold
\nterrestrial conditions, the nuclei are clothed with electrons and
\napproach one another no closer than allowed by the molecular Coulomb
\nbarrier. The rate of nuclear fusion in molecular hydrogen is then
\ngoverned by the quantum-mechanical tunneling through that barrier, or
\nequivalently, the probability of finding the two nuclei at zero
\nseparation. In a deuterium molecule, where the equilibrium separation
\nbetween deuterons (d) is 0.74 A, the d-d fusion rate is exceedingly
\nslow, about 10E-70 per D molecule per second. [1]
\n 2<\/p>\n
By replacing the electron in a hydrogen molecular ion with a more
\nmassive charged particle, the fusion rate is greatly increased. In
\nmuon-catalyzed fusion, the internuclear separation is reduced by a
\nfactor of approximately 200 (the muon to electron mass ratio), and the
\nnuclear fusion rate correspondingly increases by roughly eighty orders
\nof magnitude [1]. Muon-catalyzed fusion has been demonstrated to be
\nan effective means of rapidly inducing fusion reactions in low-
\ntemperature hydrogen isotopic mixtures [2].<\/p>\n
A hypothetical quasi-particle a few times as massive as the electron
\nwould increase the cold fusion rate to readily measurable levels,
\nabout 10E-20 fusions per d-d molecule per second [1]. Our results
\nimply that an equivalent distortion on the internuclear hydrogen
\nwavefunction can be realized under certain conditions when hydrogen
\nisotopic nuclei are loaded into metallic crystalline lattices and
\nother forms of condensed matter.<\/p>\n
We have discovered a means of inducing nuclear fusion without the use
\nof either high temperatures or radioactive muons. We will present
\ndirect experimental results as well as indirect geological evidence
\nfor the occurrence of cold nuclear fusion.<\/p>\n
DETECTION OF COLD FUSION NEUTRONS<\/p>\n
We have observed deuteron-deuteron fusion at room temperature during
\nlow-voltage electrolytic infusion of deuterons into metallic titanium
\nor palladium electrodes. The fusion reaction<\/p>\n
3
\n d + d -> He (0.82 MeV) + n (2.45 MeV) (1a)<\/p>\n
+
\nis evidently catalyzed as d and metal ions from the electrolyte are
\ndeposited at (and into) the negative electrode. Neutrons having
\napproximately 2.5 MeV energy are clearly detected with a sensitive
\nneutron spectrometer. The experimental layout is portrayed in Figure
\n1. We have not yet obtained results regarding the parallel reaction<\/p>\n
d + d -> p (3.02 MeV) + t (1.01 MeV) (1b)<\/p>\n
as this requires different measuring procedures. However, it can be
\npresumed that the reaction (1b) occurs at a nearly equal rate as the
\nreaction (1a), which is usually the case.<\/p>\n
The neutron spectrometer, developed at Brigham Young University over
\nthe past few years [3], has been crucial to the identification of this
\ncold fusion process. The detector consists of a liquid organic
\nscintillator (BC-505) contained in a glass cylinder 12.5 cm in
\ndiameter, in which three lithium-6-doped glass scintillator plates are
\nembedded. Neutrons deposit energy in the liquid scintillator via
\ncollisions and the resulting light output yields energy information.
\nThese, now low-energy neutrons are then scavenged by lithium-6 nuclei
\n 6 4
\nin the glass plates where the reaction n + Li –> t + He results in
\nscintillations in the glass. Pulse shapes from the two media differ
\nso that distinct signals are registered by the two photomultiplier
\ntubes (whose signals are summed). A coincidence of signals from the
\ntwo media with 20 microseconds identifies the neutrons.<\/p>\n
An energy calibration of the spectrometer was obtained using 2.9 and
\n3.2 MeV neutrons, generated via deuteron-deuteron interactions at 90
\ndegrees and 0 degrees, respectively, with respect to the deuteron beam
\nfrom a Van de Graaf accelerator. The observed energy spectra show a
\nbroad structure which implies that 2.45 MeV neutrons should appear in
\nthe multi-channel analyzer spectrum in channels 45-150. Stability of
\nthe detector system was checked between data runs by measuring the
\ncounting rate for fission neutrons from a broad-spectrum californium-
\n252 source. We have performed other extensive tests proving that our
\nneutron counter does not respond in this pulse height range to other
\nsources of radiation such as thermal neutrons.<\/p>\n
Background rates in the neutron counter are approximately 10E-3 1\/s in
\nthe energy region where 2.5 MeV neutrons are anticipated. By
\ncomparing energy spectra from gamma and neutron sources we have
\ndetermined that nearly all of the background stems from accidental
\ncoincidences of gamma-ray events. Improvements in the shielding and
\ngamma-ray rejection were pursued throughout the experiments, resulting
\nin significant reduction in background levels.<\/p>\n
During the search for suitable catalytic materials, we developed the
\nfollowing (unoptimized) prescription for the electrolytic cells. The
\nelectrolyte is a mixture of 160 g deuterium oxide (D O) plus various
\n 2<\/p>\n
metal salts in 0.2 g amounts each: FeSO . 7H O, NiCl . 6H O,
\n 4 2 2 2<\/p>\n
PdCl , CaCO , Li SO . H O, NaSO . 10H O, CaH (PO ) . H O,
\n 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 2 2<\/p>\n
TiOSO . H SO . 8H O, and a very small amount of AuCN.
\n 4 2 4 2<\/p>\n
(Our evidence indicates the importance of co-deposition of deuterons
\nand metal ions at the negative electrode.) The pH is adjusted to
\npH He + gamma (5.4 MeV) (4)<\/p>\n
Deuterium was incorporated in the earth during its formation. The
\ncurrent abundance in sea water is about 1.5x10E-4 deuterons per
\nproton. Water is carried down into the earth’s upper mantle at
\nconverging plate margins, and seawater is transported as deep as the
\nMoho at spreading regions [7]. Estimates of water subduction suggest
\nthat a water mass equal to the ocean mass is cycled through the mantle
\nin about 1-billion years [7]. Thus, 1.4x10E43 deuterons are cycled
\nthrough the mantle in 3x10E16 s. Since each p-d fusion releases 5.4
\nMeV (8.6×10-13 J), we calculate that a heat flux of 750 mW\/(m*m),
\naveraged over the earth, would result if all deuterium fused at the
\nrate at which it is supplied by subduction. This is more than ten
\ntimes the estimate of the actual flux of 60 mW\/(m*m) [8]. Thus,
\ngeological p-d fusion could possibly contribute to the observed heat
\nflux, the high temperatures of the earth’s core and provide an energy
\nsource for plate tectonics.<\/p>\n
The foregoing data allow a geological fusion rate lambda to be
\n f
\ncalculated. We assume a first-order rate equation for p-d
\nfusion: dN = lambda N dt, or lambda = (dN\/N)dt. The fraction (dN\/N)
\n f f
\nis the ratio of the number of fusions which take place to the number
\nof atoms available. It is also the rate of fusion divided by the rate
\nof supply of deuterons; thus, dN\/N is equal to the actual heat flux
\nfrom the earth divided by the possible heat flux so that<\/p>\n
-1
\n lambda = (60\/750)\/3x10E16 s = 3x10E-18 s (5)
\n f<\/p>\n
Consider next the possibility that the localized heat of volcanism at
\nsubduction zones is supplied by fusion. As much as 10E6 J\/kg is
\nrequired to turn rock into magma, and this must be supplied from a
\nlocal source of energy. Subducting rock contains about 3 percent
\nwater [7], or 3x10E30 deuterons\/kg. If the time available for melting
\nis equal to the time required for a plate to travel down a slant
\ndistance of 700 km at a speed of 2.5 cm\/year, about 10E15 s, the
\ninferred fusion rate is:<\/p>\n
lambda = (10E6 J\/kg)\/(3x10E20 d\/kg x 8.6E10-13 J\/fusion x 10E15 s)
\n f
\n lambda = 4x10E-18 fusions\/d\/s (6)
\n f<\/p>\n
This requires only about 0.3 percent of the available nuclear fuel.
\nThe limit on the available heat is therefore the fusion rate constant,
\nrather than the scarcity of fuel.<\/p>\n
While some of the earth’s heat must certainly derive from several
\nsources, “cold” geological nuclear fusion could account for steady-
\n 3
\nstate production of considerable heat and He in the earth’s interior.
\n 3 4
\nHigh values of the He\/ He ratio are found in the rocks, liquids, and
\ngases from volcanoes and other active tectonic regions [9].
\n 3
\nPrimordial He will be present from the formation of the earth [9],
\nbut some may be generated by terrestrial nuclear fusion. The
\ndiscovery of cold nuclear fusion in the laboratory, with a rate
\nconstant comparable to that derived from geologic thermal data,
\nsupports our hypothesis.<\/p>\n
Based on this new concept, we predict that some tritium should be
\nproduced by d-d fusion in the earth (see equation 1). Since tritium
\n 3
\ndecays according to t -> He + beta with a 12-year half-life,
\ndetection of tritium in volcanic emissions would imply cold-fusion
\nproduction of tritium. This is supported by the following
\nobservations. A tritium monitoring station was operated at Mauna Loa
\non Hawaii Island from August 1971 to the end of 1977. We have found
\nstrong correlations between tritium detected at Mauna Loa and nearby
\nvolcanic activity in this period of time. Figure 4 displays data
\ncompiled by Ostlund for HT gas measured at the Mauna Loa station in
\n1972 [10]. Similar data taken at Miami, Florida, are provided for
\ncomparison. A striking spike in the tritium level is clearly seen in
\nthe February-March 1972 Mauna Loa data. Ostlund notes that these
\nsignificant tritium readings over a several-week period have not been
\npreviously understood; in particular, the timing and shape of the peak
\nis inconsistent with hydrogen bomb tests in Russia five months earlier
\n[10]. However, this signal is coincident with a major eruption of the
\nMauna Ulu volcano [11] 40 km to the southeast. Furthermore, winds in
\nMarch 1972 carried volcanic gases northwest, towards the Mauna Loa
\nstation and on towards Honolulu 200 km away: “Trade winds [from the
\nnortheast] were infrequent and the southerly flow that replaced them
\noccasionally blanketed the state with volcanic haze from an eruption
\non Hawaii Island … High particulate matter measurements in Honolulu
\nconfirmed the northward spread of haze from the Mauna Ulu Volcano
\neruption on Hawaii Island.” [12]<\/p>\n
This remarkable set of circumstances permits us to estimate the amount
\nof tritium released during the February-March 1972 eruption of Mauna
\nUlu. Based on the distance to the Mauna Loa station and average 8 mph
\nwinds [12], we estimate that on average 100 curies of tritium were
\nreleased per day for 30 days. An accidental release of this magnitude
\nof manmade tritium sustained for several weeks on a nearly
\nuninhabited island is highly unlikely. We conclude that this volcanic
\neruption freed tritium produced by geological nuclear reactions.<\/p>\n
Other HT data from the Mauna Loa station, such as the high reading in
\nthe latter half of 1972, are also coincident with volcanic activity,
\nalthough a tritium-releasing bomb test also occurred in Russia in late
\nAugust. A major spike in the atmospheric HT observed near Hawaii in
\nDec 1974 – June 1975 [10] coincides with another large volcanic
\neruption on Hawaii Island, but the significance is again obscured by
\nH-bomb tests. Finally, no significant deviations in HT reading are
\nnoted in 1976 or 1977 [10] when no volcanic activity is noted, except
\nfor “gentle” activity at Kileau on September 17, 1977 [13].<\/p>\n
OTHER EVIDENCES FOR COLD FUSION<\/p>\n
Further evidence for cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter comes
\n 3 4
\nfrom studies of He and He in diamonds and metals. Using laser-
\nslicing of diamonds, H. Craig (private communication) has measured the
\n 4 3 4
\nabsolute concentrations of both He and He. He was found to be
\nsmoothly distributed through the crystal as if it were derived from
\n 3
\nthe environment. On the other hand, He was found to be concentrated
\nin spots implying in-situ formation. Cold piezonuclear p-d or d-d
\nfusion provides a plausible explanation for these data.<\/p>\n
3
\nConcentration anomalies of He have also been reported in metal foils
\n 3
\n[14]. The spotty concentrations of He suggest cold piezonuclear
\n 3
\nfusion as the origin of the observed He. Note that electrolytic
\nrefining of the metals in deuterium-bearing water could have provided
\nconditions for cold nuclear fusion. Among several possible
\nexplanations, the authors [14] suggest an “analog” of muon catalysis.
\nWe think they were close to the mark!<\/p>\n
Cold nuclear fusion may be important in other celestial bodies besides
\nearth. Jupiter, for example, radiates about twice as much heat as it
\nreceives from the sun [1]. It is interesting to consider whether cold
\nnuclear fusion in the core of Jupiter, which is probably metallic
\nhydrogen plus iron silicate, could account for its excess heat. Heat
\nis radiated at an approximate rate of 10E18 W, which could be produced
\nby p-d fusions occurring at a rate of 10E20(1\/s) [1]. Assuming a
\npredominately hydrogen core of radius 4.6x10E9 cm, having a density
\n= 10 g\/(cm*cm*cm) and a deuteron\/proton ratio of roughly 10E-4, we
\ndeduce a required p-d fusion rate of lambda = 10E-19
\n f
\nfusions\/deuteron\/second–in remarkable agreement with cold fusion
\nrates found in terrestrial conditions.<\/p>\n
CONCLUSIONS<\/p>\n
A new form of cold nuclear fusion has been observed during
\nelectrolytic infusion of deuterons into metals. While the need for
\noff-equilibrium conditions is clearly implied by our data, techniques
\nother than electrochemical may also be successful. We have begun to
\nexplore the use of ion implantation, and of elevated pressures and
\ntemperatures mimicking geological conditions.<\/p>\n
If deuteron-deuteron fusion can be catalyzed, then the d-t fusion
\nreaction is probably favored due to its much larger nuclear cross
\nsection. Thus, while the fusion rates observed so far are small,
\nthe discovery of cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter opens the
\npossibility at least of a new path to fusion energy.<\/p>\n
We acknowledge valuable contributions of Douglas Bennion, David Mince,
\nLawrence Rees, Howard Vanfleet and J. C. Wang of Brigham Young
\nUniversity, and of Mike Danos, Fraser Goff, Berndt Muller, Albert
\nNier, Gote Ostlund, and Clinton Van Siclen. We especially thank Alan
\nAnderson for advice on the data analysis and Harmon Craig for
\ncontinuing encouragement and for use of his data on diamonds before
\ntheir publication.<\/p>\n
The research is supported by the Advanced Energy Projects Division of
\nthe U.S. Department of Energy.<\/p>\n
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